^^"^^"^O       C' ;    :y/  J 


L22L- ^-frZ-^V.^Sf^P 


UC-NRLF 


*B    Ebb    fl7b 


t^^'^ti- 


4 


'"^Z-^M^ 


GIFT  or 

Dr.   Horace   Ivie 


ENGLISH    GRAMMAR, 


ADAPTED  TO  THE 


DIFFERENT  CLASSES   OF  LEARNERS, 


APPENDIX, 

CONTAINING 

RULES  AND  OBSERViATIONS 

FOR   ASSISTING   THE    MORE   ADVAI^'cEI)   StlTDENTS   TO   WRITE 
WITH   PERSPICUITY   AND   ACCURACY. 


They  who  are  learning  to  compose  and  arrange  their  sentences  with  accuracy  and 
order,  are  learning,  at  the  same  time,  to  think  with  accuracy  and  order.—BLAiB. 


BY  LINDLEY  MURRAY. 


NEW-LONDON: 
PUBLISHED  BY  W.  &  J.  BOLLES. 

1835. 


V* ; 


erFfeF 

EDUCATION  DePT 


INTRODUCTION. 


Wj 


HEN  the  number  and  variety  of  English  Grammars  already 
published,  and  the  ability  with  which  some  of  them  are  written, 
are  considered,  little  can  be  expected  from  a  new  compilation,  be- 
sides a  careful  selection  of  the  most  useful  matter,  and  some 
degree  of  improvement  in  the  mode  of  adapting  it  to  the  under- 
standing, and  the  gradual  progress  of  learners.  In  these  respects 
something,  perhaps,  may  yet  be  done,  for  the  ease  and  advantage 
of  young  persons. 

In  books  designed  for  the  instruction  of  youth,  there  is  a  me- 
dium to  be  observed,  between  treating  the  subject  in  so  exten- 
sive and  minute  a  manner,  as  to  eiiibai'yass  and  'C<3nfijse  their 
minds,  by  offering  too  much  at  oi^e^for.their  ,i!omprefheiision ;  and, 
©n  the  other  hand,  conducting  it  by  Such  short  and  generalprecepts 
and  observations,  as  convey  to;thei][i,n<)  cl^ar  aiid  preOi^  pnf'W:ma- 
tion.  A  distribution  of  the  ^^^rt;§j  Vhi<ch  is  eithei*  'defective  or 
irregular,  has  also  a  tendency  to  perplex  the  young  understanding, 
and  to  retard  its  knowledge  of  the  principles  of  literature.  A  dis- 
tinct general  view,  or  outhne,  of  all  the  essential  parts  ofthe  study 
in  which  they  are  engaged  ;  a  gradual  and  judicious  supply  of  this 
outline  ;  and  a  due  arrangement  of  the  divisions,  according  to 
their  natural  order  and  connexion,  appear  to  be  among  the  best 
means  of  enhghtening  the  minds  of  youth,  and  of  facilitating  their 
acquisition  of  knowledge.  The  author  of  this  work,  at  the  same 
time  that  he  has  endeavoured  to  avoid  a  plan,  which  may  be  too 
concise  or  too  extensive,  defective  in  its  parts  or  irregu'a,  in  their 
disposition,  has  studied  to  render  his  subject  sufficient'  j«sy,  in- 
telligible, and  comprehensive.  He  does  not  prep  J^ne  t  /lave  com- 
pletely attained  these  objects.  How  far  he  has  sue  ^eded  in  the 
attempt,  and  wherein  he  has  failed,  must  be  refe'.;ed  to  the  de- 
termination ofthe  judicious  and  candid  reader. 

The  method  which  he  has  adopted,  of  exhibiting  the  perform- 
ance in  characters  of  different  sizes,  will,  he  trusts,  be  conducive 
to  that  gradual  and  regular  procedure,  which  is  so  favourable'  to 
the  business  of  instruction.  The  more  important  rules,  definitions, 
and  observations,  and  which  are  therefore  the  most  proper  to  be 
committed  to  memory,  are  printed  with  a  larger  type  ;  whilst  rules 
and  remarks  that  are  of  less  consequence,  that  extend  or  diversify 
the  general  idea,  or  that  serve  as  explanations,  are  contained  in  the 
smaller  letter :  these,  or  the  chief  of  them,  will  be  perused  by  the 
etudent  to  the  greatest  advantage,  if  postponed  till  the  general  sys- 
tem be  completed.  The  use  of  notes  and  observations,  in  the  com 
mon  and  detached  manner,  at  the  bottom  ofthe  page,  would  not,  it 
is  imagined,  be  so  likely  to  attract  the  perusal  of  youth,  or  admit  ol 
go  ample  and  regular  an  illustration,  as  a  continued  and  uniform 
Oi'der  ofthe  several  subjectg^  Iw.aiUjptiji|;f,this  mode,  care  has  been 


4  INTRODUCTIOrf. 

taken  to  adjust  it  so  that  the  whole  may  be  perused  in  a  t^onnected 
progress,  or  the  part  contained  in  the  larger  character  read  in  or- 
der by  itself.  Many  of  the  notes  and  observations  are  intended, 
not  only  to  explain  the  subjects,  and  to  illustrate  them,  by  compara- 
tive views  of  the  grammar  of  other  languages,  and  of  the  variouf  I 
sentiments  of  English  grammarians  ;  but  also  to  invite  the  ingeniH 
ous  student  to  inquiry  and  reflection,  and  to  prompt  to  a  more 
enlarged,  critical,  and  philosophical  research. 

With  respect  to  the  definitions  and  rules,  it  may  not  be  impro- 
per more  particularly  to  observe,  that  in  selecting  and  forming 
them,  it  has  been  the  author's  aim  to  render  them  as  exact  and 
comprehensive,  and,  at  the  same  time,  as  intelligible  to  young 
minds,  as  the  nature  of  the  subject,  and  the  dirficuities  attending  it, 
would  admit.  He  presumes  that  they  are  also  calculated  to  be 
readily  committed  to  memory,  and  easily  retained.  For  this  pur- 
pose, he  '(vas  been  s«^li«ixous  to  select  terms  that  are  smooth  and 
voluble  ;  to  proportioK'  th^,*.  m«*3mbers  of  the  sentences  to  one 
another;  Jo  avoid  protracted  periods  ;  and  to  give  the  whole  defi- 
nitiwo?  fjal/e,'a5  -^f.icKljarj>iony  of  expression  as  he  could  devise. 

From  the  ^eiitirAent  gei* ;,Kk-%^(idmitted,  that  a  proper  selection 
of  faulty  composition  is  more  instructive  to  the  young  gramma- 
rian, than  any  rules  and  examples  of  propriety  that  can  be  given, 
the  Compiler  has  been  induced  to  pay  peculiar  attention  to  this 
part  of  the  subject ;  and  though  tlie  instances  of  false  grammar, 
under  the  ru]«5s  of  Syntax,  are  numerous,  it  is  hoped  they  will  not 
be  found  too  many,  when  their  variety  and  usefulness  are  con- 
sidered. 

In  a  work  which  professes  itself  to  be  a  compilation,  and  which, 
from  the  nature  and  design  of  it,  must  consist  chiefly  of  materials 
selected  from  the  writings  of  others,  it  is  scarcely  necessary  to 
apologize  for  the  use  which  the  Compiler  has  made  of  his  prede- 
cessors' labours  ;  or  for  omitting  to  insert  their  names.  From  the 
alterations  which  have  been  frequently  made  in  the  sentiments 
and  the  language,  to  suit  the  connexion,  and  to  adapt  them  to  the 
particular  purposes  for  which  they  are  introduced  ;  a'^d,  in  many 
instances,  from  the  uncertainty  to  whom  the  passa^  j  originally 
belonged,  the  insertion  of  names  could  seldom  be  made  with  pro- 
priety. But  if  this  could  have  been  generally  done,  a  work  of  this 
nature  would  derive  no  advantage  from  it,  equal  to  the  inconve- 
nience of  crowding  the  pages  with  a  repetition  of  names  and  re- 
ferences. It  is,  however,  proper  to  acknowledge,  in  genera) 
terms,  that  the  authors  to  whom  the  grammatical  part  of  thi? 
compilation  is  principally  irdebted  for  its  materials,  are  Harris. 
Johnson,  Lowth,  Priestley,  Beattie,  Sheridan,  Walker,  and  Coote. 

The  Rules  and  Observations  respecting  Perspicuity,  &c.  con- 
tained in  the  Appendix,  and  which  are,  chiefly,  extracted  from 
the  writings  of  131air  and  Campbell,  will,  it  is  presumed,  form  a 
proi>er  addition  to  the  Grammar.  The  subjects  are  very  nearly 
related ;  and  the  study  of  perspicuity  and  accuracy  in  writing 
appears  naturally  to  follow  that  of  Grammar.    A  competent  ac 


INTRODUCTIO't.  5 

quaintance  with  the  principles  of  both,  will  prepare  and  qualify 
the  students,  for  prosecuting  those  additional  improvements  in 
language,  to  which  they  may  be  properly  directed. 

On  the  utihty  and  importance  of  the  study  of  Grammar,  and 
the  principles  of  Composition,  much  might  be  advanced,  for  the 
encouragement  of  persons  in  early  life  to  apply  themselves  to 
this  branch  of  learning;  but  as  tlie  limits  of  this  Introduction 
\vl;l  not  allow  of  many  observations  on  the  subject,  a  few  leading 
sentiments  are  all  that  can  be  admitted  here  with  propriety.  As 
words  are  the  signs  of  our  ideas,  and  the  medium  by  which  w^e 
perceive  the  sentiments  of  others,  and  communicate  our  own : 
and  as  signs  exhibit  the  things  which  they  are  intended  to  repre- 
sent, more  or  less  accurately,  according  as  their  real  or  established 
conformity  to  those  things  is  more  or  less  exact;  it  is  evident,  that 
in  proportion  to  our  knowledge  of  the  nature  and  properties  ot 
words,  of  their  relation  to  each  other,  and  of  their  established 
connexion  with  the  ideas  to  which  they  are  applied,  will  be  the 
certainty  and  ease,  with  which  we  transfuse  our  sentiments 
into  the  minds  of  one  another  ;  and  that,  without  a  competent 
knowledge  of  this  kind,  we  shall  frequently  be  in  hazard  of  mis- 
understanding others,  and  of  being  misunderstood  ourselves.  It 
may  indeed  be  justly  asserted,  that  many  of  the  differences  in 
opinion  amongst  men,  with  the  disputes,  contentions,  and  aliena- 
tions of  lieart,  which  have  too  often  proceeded  from  such  differ- 
ences, have  been  occasioned  by  a  want  of  proper  skill  in  the 
connexion  and  meaning  of  words,  and  by  a  tenacious  misappli- 
cation of  language. 

One  of  the  best  supports,  which  the  recommendation  of  this 
study  can  receive,  in  small  compass,  may  be  derived  from  the 
following  sentimenrs  of  an  eminent  and  candid  writer*  on  lan- 
guage and  composition.  "  All  that  regards  the  study  of  compo- 
"  sition,  merits  the  higher  attention  upon  this  account,  that  it  is 
"intimately  connected  with  the  improvement  of  our  intellectual 
"  powers.  For  I  must  be  allowed  to  say,  that  when  we  are  em- 
"  ployed,  after  a  proper  manner,  in  the  study  of  ccrnposition,  we 
'^are  cultivating  the  understanding  itself.  Thestudy  of  arranging 
'and  expressing  our  thoughts  with  propriety,  teaches  to  think, 
"  as  well  as  to  speak,  accurately." 

Before  the  close  of  this  Introduction,  it  may  not  be  superflu- 
ous to  observe,  that  the  author  of  the  following  work  has  no 
interest  in  it,  but  that  which  arises  from  the  hope,  that  it  will 
prove  of  some  advantage  to  young  persons,  and  relieve  the 
labours  of  those  who  are  employed  in  their  education,  lie 
wishes  to  promote,  in  some  degree,  the  ca  ise  of  virtue,  as  weh  as 
of  learning;  and,  with  this  view,  he  has  been  studious,  through 
the  whole  of  the  work,  not  only  to  avoid  every  example  and  illus- 
tration, which  might  have  an  improper  effect  on  the  minds  of 
vouth  ;  but  also  to  introduce,  on  many  occasions,  such  as  have  ^ 


♦  Blait 

A2 


INTROPUCTIOK. 


moral  and  religious  tendency.  His  attention  to  objects  of  so 
much  importance  will,  he  trusts,  meet  the  approbation  of  ever^ 
well-disposed  reader.  If  they  were  faithfully  regarded  in  all 
books  of  education,  they  would  doubtless  contribute  very  mate- 
rially to  the  order  and  happiness  of  society,  by  guarding  the  in 
nocence  and  cherishing  the  virtue  of  the  rising  generation. 
Holdgate,  near  York,  1795. 


ADVERTISEMENT 


A 


TO  THE  NINTH  EDITION. 

The  eighth  edition  of  this  grammar  received  considerable 
alterations  and  additions;  but  works  of  this  nature  admit  of  re- 
peated improvements  ;  and  are,  perhaps,  never  complete.  The 
author,  soficitous  to  render  his  book  more  worthy  of  the  en 
couragiog  approbation  bestowed  on  it  by  the  public,  has  again 
revised  the  work  with  care  and  attention.  The  new  edition,  he 
hopes,  will  be  found  much  improved.  The  additions,  which  are 
very  considerable,  are,  chiefly,  such  as  are  calculated  to  expand 
the  learner's  views  of  the  subject ;  to  obviate  objections  ;  and  to 
render  the  study  of  grammar  both  easy  and  interesting.  This 
edition  contains  also  anew  and  enlarged  system  of  parsing  ;  co- 
pious lists  of  nouns  arranged  according  to  their  gender  and 
number  ;  and  many  notes  and  observations,  which  serve  to  ex- 
tend, or  to  explain,  particular  rules  and  positions.* 

The  writer  is  sensible  that,  after  all  his  endeavours  to  elucidate 
the  principles  of  the  work,  there  are  few  of  the  divisions,  arrange- 
ments, definitions,  or  rules,  against  which  critical  ingenuity 
cannot  devise  plausible  objections.  The  subject  is  attended  with 
so  much  intricacy,  and  admits  of  views  so  various,  that  it  was  not 
possible  to  render  every  part  of  it  unexceptionable ;  or  to  ac- 
commodate the  work,  in  all  respects,  to  the  opinions  and  pre- 
possessions of  every  grammarian  and  teacher.  If  the  authoi 
has  adopted  that  system  which,  on  the  whole,  is  best  suited  to 
the  nature  of  tne  subject,  and  conformable  to  the  sentiments  of 
the  most  judicious  grammarians  ;  if  his  reasonings  and  illustra- 
tions, respecting  particular  points,  are  founded  on  just  principles, 
and  the  pecuharities  of  the  English  language ;  he  has,  perhaps, 
done  all  that  could  reasonably  be  expected  in  a  work  of  this 
nature ;  and  he  may  warrantably  indulge  a  hope,  that  the  book 
will  be  still  more  extensively  approved  and  circulated. 

*  The  author  conceives  that  the  occasional  strictures,  dispersed  through  ihe 
book,  and  intended  to  illustrate  and  support  a  number  of  important  grammatical 
points,  will  not,  to  young  i  arsons  of  ingenuity,  appear  to  be  drv  and  useless 
discussions.  He  is  persuaded  that,  by  such  persons,  they  will  be  read  with  at- 
tention. And  he  presumes  that  these  strictures  will  gratify  their  curiosity, 
stimulate  application,  and  n;ive  solidity  and  permanence  to  thetr  grainniatical 
knowledge.  In  tlie  Octavo  edition  of  the  grammar,  the  reader  wil\  find  manjf 
additional  discussions  of  this  nature, 

HoldgaU^  near  Yorkf  1804. 


CONTENTS. 


PART  I.— ORTHOGRAPHY. 

CI  AP.  1.     Of  letters.  Page. 

Sect.  1.     Of  the  nature  of  the  letters,  and  of  a  per- 
fect alphabet 11 

2.  General  observations  on  the  sounds  of  the 

letters 17 

3.  The  nature  of  articulation  explained.  .  24 
CHAP.  2.  Of  syllables,  and  the  rules  for  arranging  them.  26 
CHaP.  3.     Of  words  in  general,  and  the  rules  for  spelling 

them 27 

PART  II.— ETYMOLOGY. 

CHAP.  1.     A  general  view  of  the  parts  of  speech.     ...  30 

CHAP.  2.     Of  the  articles 33 

CHAP.  3.     Of  substantives. 

Sect.  1.     Of  substantives  in  general 34 

2.  Of  gender ib. 

3.  Of  number 36 

4.  Of  case 38 

CHAP.  4.     Of  adjectives. 

Sect.  1.     Of  the  nature  of  adjectives,  and  the  degrees 

of  comparison 41 

2.     Remarks  on  the  subject  of  comparison.     .     42 

CHAP.  5.     Of  pronouns. 

Sect.  1.     Of  the  personal  pronouns 43 

2.  Of  the  relative  pronouns .45 

3.  Of  the  adjective  pronouns.       .    .         .     .    46 

CHAP.  6.     Of  verbs. 

Sect.  1.  Of  the  nature  of  verbs  in  general.     ...  50 

2.  Of  number  and  person 52 

3.  Of  moods  and  participles ib. 

4.  Remarks  on  the  potential  mood 55 

5.  Of  the  tenses 57 

6.  The  conjugation  of  the  auxiliary  verbs  to 

have  and  to  be 61 

7.  The  auxiliary   verbs  conjugated  in  their 

simple  form  ;  with  obr^ervations  on  their 
peculiar  nature  and  force.  •    •    •      67 


8  CONTENTS. 

Page 

Sect.  8.    The  conjugation  of  regular  verbs.     .    .  70 

9.     Observations  on  passive  verbs.      ...  76 

10.  Of  irregular  verbs 78 

11.  Of  defective  verbs  ;    and  of  the  different 

ways  in  which  verbs  are  conjugated.    .  83 

CHAP.  7.     Of  adverbs 84 

CHAP.  8.     Of  prepositions 87 

CHAP.  9.     Of  conjunctions S9 

CHAP.  10.  Of  Interjections 91 

CHAP.  IK  Of  derivation 92 

Sect.  1,     Of  the  various  ways  in  which  words  are 

derived  from  one  another ib 

2.     A  sketch  of  the  steps,  by  which  the  English 
language  has  risen  to  its  present  state 

of  refinement 94 

PART  in.— SYNTAX. 

Of  the  syntax  of  the  article 115 

Of  the  syntax  of  the  noun. 

Of  several  nouns  joined  by  copulatives 100 

Of  nouns  connected  by  disjunctives 102 

Of  nouns  of  multitude ib. 

Of  one  noun  governing  another  in  the  possessive  case.  117 

Of  the  syntax  of  the  pronoun* 

Of  pronouns  agreeing  with  their  antecedents.     .     .     103 
Of  the  relative  being  nominative  to  the  verb.    .     .     .     107 
Of  the  relative  preceded  by  nominatives  of  different 
persons 108 

Of  the  syntax  of  the  adjective ib 

Of  the  syntax  of  the  verb. 

Of  the  verb's  agreement  with  the  nominative  case.   .  97 

Of  verbs  active  requiring  the  objective  case.    .     .     .  121 

Of  one  verb  governing  another  in  the  infinitive  mood.  123 

Of  verbs  related  in  point  of  time 124 

Of  the  syntax  of  the  participle 127 

Of  the  rules  respecting  adverbs. 

Of  the  position  of  adverbs 129 

Of  two  negatives 131 

Of  the  syntax  of  prepositions 131 

Of  the  syntax  of  conjunctions. 

Of  conjunctions  connecting  the  same  moods,  tenses, 

and  cases 134 

Of  conjunctions  requiring  the6ubjunctive°mood,dcc.  135 

Of  the  syntax  of  interjections 106 


CONTENTS.  9 

Page. 

Of  comparisons  by  the  conjunction  Man  01  (w J  42 

Directions  respecting  the  ellipses 143 

General  rule  of  syntax J  46 

Directions  for  parsing 148 

PART  IV.— PROSODY, 

CHAP.  1.     Of  pronunciation ! 154 

Sect.  1.     Of  accent ik. 

2.  Of  quantity 158 

3.  Of  emphasis 159 

4.  Of  pauses 163 

5.  Of  tones 165 

CHAP.  2.     Of  versification 166 

OF  PUNCTUATION. 

CHAP.  1.     Of  the  comma ; 177 

CHAP.  2.     Of  the  semicolon 181 

CHAP,  a     Of  the  colon 182 

CHAP.  4.     Of  the  period ib. 

CHAP.  5.    Of  the  dash,  notes  of  interrogation,  exclama- 
tion, capitals,  &c 183 

APPENDIX. 

EULKS   AND    OBSERVATION'S   FOR    PROMOTING    FERSPICUITT  AND 
ACCURACT   IN    WRITING. 

PART  I. 

Of  ptrspicuityi  and  cLCCuracy  of  expression,  with  respect  to  single 
words  and  phrases. 

CHAP.  1.    Of  purity 188 

CHAP.  2.     Of  propriety 189 

CHAP.  3.     Of  precision 193 

PART  II. 

Of  perspicuity  and  accuracy  of  expression,  with  respect  to  the  con^ 
struction  of  sentences. 

Of  the  clearness  of  a  sentence.      .    .          •    •  197 


CHAP.  1. 
CHAP.  2. 
CHAP.  3. 
CHAP.  4. 


Of  the  unity  of  a  sentence    . 
Of  the  strength  of  a  sentence. 
Of  figures  of  speech.   . 


4DDR£8S   TO    YOUNG   STUDENTS. 


200 
203 
215 

229 


ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 


English  grammar  is  the  art  of  speaking  and  writing 
the  English  language  with  propriety. 

It  is  divided  into  four  parts,  viz.  ORTHOGRAPHY, 
ETYMOLOGY,  SYNTAX,  and  PROSODY. 

This  division  may  be  rendered  more  intelligible  to  the  student, 
by  observing,  in  other  words,  that  Grammar  treats,  first; of  the 
form  and  sound  of  the  letters,  the  combination  of  letters  into  syl- 
lables, and  syllables  into  words  ;  secondly^  of  the  different  sorts 
of  words,  their  var4ous  modifications,  and  their  derivation  ;  third- 
ly,  of  the  union  and  right  order  of  words  in  the  formation  of  a 
uentcnce ;  and  lastly,  of  the  just  pronunciation,  and  poetical  con- 
HtuctJoK  of  flontences. 


PART  L 
ORTHOGRAPHY. 


CHAPTER  I. 

OP    THE    LETTERS. 


SECTION  I.     Of  the  nature  of  the  letters,  and  of  a  perfect 
alphabets 

ORTHOGRAPHY  teaches  the  nature  and  powers  of 
letters,  and  the  just  method  of  spelhng  words. 

A  letter  is  the  first  principle,  or  least  part,  of  a  word. 

The  letters  of  the  English  language,  called  the  English 
Alphabet,  are  twenty-six  in  number. 

These  letters  are  the  representatives  of  certain  articu- 
late sounds,  the  elements  of  the  language.  An  articulate 
sound,  is  the  sound  of  the  human  voice,  formed  by  the  or- 
gans of  speech. 


I2  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR 

The   following  is  a  list  of  the  Anglo-Saxon,  Roman, 
and  Old  English  Characters 


Saxon. 

Roman. 

Italic. 

Old  English. 

Name 

Cap. 

Small 

Cap. 

Small. 

Cap. 

Small. 

Cap. 

Small 

^ 

S. 

a 

A 

a 

A 

a 

a 

a 

at. 

6 

b 

B 

b 

B 

h 

i$ 

t 

hee» 

E 

c 

C 

c 

a 

c 

« 

c 

Bee, 

D 

b 

D 

d 

D 

d 

@ 

tr 

dee. 

e  ' 

e 

£ 

e 

E 

e 

35 

e 

«• 

F 

F 

F 

f 

F 

f 

9 

t 

C/-.         ^ 

Xt 

S 

G 

g 

G 

S 

<& 

s 

;>ft 

Jj 

h 

H 

h 

H 

h 

m 

h 

aiVcA.    i 

I 

i 

I 

i 

I 

i 

K 

C 

t  or  ey 

J 

J 

J 

J 

S 

f 

i«y- 

K 

Jc 

K 

k 

'  K 

k 

It 

ft 

kay 

L 

1 

L 

1 

L 

I 

3L 

I 

el. 

CO 

m 

M 

m 

M 

m 

m 

m 

em. 

N 

n 

N 

n 

JV 

n 

m 

n 

€n. 

0 

0 

O 

0 

0 

0 

® 

0 

0. 

P 

P 

P 

P 

p 

P 

^ 

9 

;>ce. 

d 

q 

Q 

9 

<& 

Q 

ctic 

R 

P 

R 

r 

R 

r 

21 

r 

ar. 

S 

r 

S 

8 

S 

s 

& 

» 

ess 

T 

c 

T 

t 

T 

t 

a: 

t 

tee. 

B 

"^tk 

U 

u 

U 

a 

U 

u 

n 

tt 

u  or  yot 

V 

V 

T 

F 

V 

® 

i) 

vee. 

ID 

p 

W 

W 

W 

w 

as? 

in 

double  % 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

F 

eks.        1 

If 

f 

Y 

y 

Y 

y 

a? 

S 

wy.       ^ 

z 

s 

Z 

z 

Z 

z 

z 

1 

zed. 

ORTHOGRAPHY.  13 

A  perfect  alphabet  of  the  Enghsh  language,  and,  indeed,  of 
every  otber  language,  would  contain  a  number  of  letters,  pre- 
cisely equal  to  the  number  of  simple  articulate  sounds  belonging 
-  to  the  language.  Every  simple  sound  would  have  its  distinct 
character  ;  and  that  character  be  the  representative  of  no  other 
gound.  But  this  is  far  from  being  the  state  of  the  English  al- 
phabet. It  has  more  original  sounds  than  distinct  significant 
letters;  and,  consequently,  some  of  these  letters  are  made  to  re- 
present, not  one  sound  alone,  but  several  sounds.  This  will  ap- 
pear by  reflecting,  that  the  sounds  signified  by  the  united  letters 
thj  sh,  ng,  are  elementary,  and  have  no  single  appropriate  cha- 
racters, in  our  alphabet :  and  that  the  letters  a  and  u  represent 
the  different  sounds  heard  in  k9t,  hatCy  hall ;  and  in  but,  hullj  mule. 
To  explain  this  subject  more  fully  to  the  learners,  we  sliall  set 
down  the  characters  made  use  of  to  represent  all  the  elementary 
articulate  sounds  of  our  language,  as  nearly  in  the  manner  and 
order  of  the  piesent  English  alphabet,  as  the  design  of  the  sub- 
ject will  admit ;  and  shall  annex  to  each  character  tlie  syllable 
or  word,  which  contains  its  pjroper  and  distinct  sound.  And 
tkece  it  will  be  proper  to  begin  with  the  vowels. 

Letters  denoting  the  Words  containing  the 

gtraple  sounds.  simple  sounds. 

a  as  heard  in  fate 

a  as  in  fall 

a  .    as  in  fat 

a  as  in  far 

e  as  in  '        me 

e  as  in  met 

i  as  in  pine 

i  as  in  pin 

o  as  in  no 

o  as  in  not 

o  ae  in  '  move 

u  as  in  mule 

u  as  in  tub 

u  as     '      in  bull 

By  this  list  it  appears,  that  there  are  in  the  English  language 
fourteen  simple  vowel  sounds  :  but  as  tand  w,  when  pronounced 
long,  may  be  considered  as  diphthongs,  or  diphthongal  vowels,  ouij 
lan^age,  strictly  speaking,  contains  but  twelve  simple  vowel 
f)cunds  ;  to  represent  which,  we  have  only  five  distinct  charac- 
lers  or  letters.  If  a  in  far,  is  the  same  specific  sound  as  a  in  fat ; 
Rud  u  in  hull,  the  same  as  o  in  viove,  which  is  the  opinion  of  some 
granm)arians  ;  then  there  are  but  ten  original  vowel  sounds  in 
the  English  language. 

The  following  hst  denotes  the  sounds  o£the  consonants,  being 
Ml  number  twenty-two. 

B 


14  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 


Letters  denoting  the 

Words  containing  ih» 

simple  sounds. 

simple  sounds. 

b 

as  heard  in 

h^y,  tub        i 

d 

as 

in 

day,  sad        | 

f 

as 

in 

off,  for 

y 

as 

in 

van,  love 

S 

as 

in 

f  gg,  go          . 

h* 

€U 

in 

bop,  ho         d 

k 

as 

%n 

kil ,  oak 

1 

as 

in 

lap,  all 

m 

as 

in 

my,  mum 

n 

as 

in 

no,  on 

P 

us 

4n 

pin,  map 

r 

as 

in 

rap,  cry 

s 

as 

in 

60,  lass 

z 

as 

in 

zed,  buzz 

t 

as 

in 

top,  mat 

w 

as 

in 

wo,  will 

y 

as 

in 

ye,  yes 

ng 

as 

i7^ 

ing,  sing 

sh 

as 

in 

shy,  ash 

th 

as 

in 

thin,  thick 

th 

as 

in 

then,  them 

zh 

as 

in 

pleasure 

Several  letters  marked  in  the  English  alphabet,  as  consonaflts^ 
are  either  superfluous,  or  represent,  not  simple,  but  complex 
sounds.  C,  for  instance,  is  superfluous  in  both  its  sounds;  the  one 
oeing  expressed  by  A:,  and  the  other  by  5.  G,  in  the  soft  pronun- 
ciation,  is  not  a  simple,  but  a  complex  sound ;  as  age  is  pro- 
nounced aidge,  J  is  unnecessary,  because  its  sound,  and  that  of 
the  soft  gi  are  in  our  language  the  same.  Q,  with  its  attendant 
1^,  is  either  complex,  and  resolvable  into  to,  as  in  quality;  or  un- 
necessary, because  its  sound  is  the  same  with  k,  as  in  opaque,  X 
is  compounded  of  g-5,  as  in  example  ;  or  ofks,  as  in  expect 

From  the  preceding  representation,  it  appears  to  be  a  point  of 
considerable  importance,  that  every  learner  of  the  English  lan- 
guage should  be  taught  to  pronounce  perfectly,  and  with  facility, 
every  original  simple  sound  that  belongs  to  it.  By  a  timely  arid 
iudicious  care  in  this  respect,  the  voice  will  be  prepared  to  utter, 
with  ease  and  accuracy,  every  combination  of  sounds ;  and  tai^ght 
to  avoid  that  confused  and  imperfect  manner  of  pronouncing 
words,  which  accompanies,  through  life,  many  persons  who  have 
not,  in  this  respect,  been  properly  instructed  at  an  early  period. 

Letters  are  divided  into  Vowels  and  Consonants. 

A  Vowel  is  an  articulate  sound,  that  can  be  perfectly 
uttered  by  itself:  as,  a,  c,  o ;  which  are  formed  without 
the  help  of  any  other  sound. 

*  Some  grammarians  suppose  h  to  mark  only  an  aspiration,  or  breathing; 
but  it  appears  to  be  a  distinct  sound,  and  formed  in  a  particular  manner,  by  th* 
organs  of  speech.  Encyclopedia  Britannicck 


ORTHOGRAPHY.  15 

A  Consonant  is  an  articulate  sound,  which  cannot  be 
pi^rfectly  uttered  without  the  help  of  a  vowel :  as,  6,  d,/. 
/  ;  which  require  vowels  to  express  them  fully. 

The  vowels  are,  a,  e,  i.  o,  n,  and  sometimes  w  and  y. 
/Fand  y  are  consonants  when  they  begin  a  word  or  syl- 
lable ;  but  in  every  other  situation  they  are  vowels. 

It  is  generally  acknowledged  by  the  best  grammarians,  that  w 
and  y  are  consonants  when  they  begin  a  syllable  or  word,  and 
vowels  when  they  end  one.  That  they  are  consonants,  when  used 
as  initials,  seems  to  be  evident  from  their  not  admitting  the  arti- 
cle an  before  them,  as  it  would  be  improper  to  say,  an  walnut,  an 
yard,  &c. ;  and  from  their  following  a  vowel  without  any  hiatus 
or  difficulty  of  utterance ;  as,  frosty  winter,  rosy  youth.  That  they 
are  vowels  in  other  situations,  appears  from  their  regularly  tak- 
ing the  sound  of  other  vowels ;  as,  w  has  the  exact  sound  of  w  in 
saw,  few,  now,  &c. ;  and  y  that  of  i,  in  hymn,  fly,  crystal,  &c 
See  the  letters  W  and  Y,  pages  22  and  23.^ 
.  We  present  the  following  as  more  exact  and  philosophical  de 
finitions  of  a  vowel  and  consonant. 

A  vowel  is  a  simple,  articulate  sound,  perfect  in  itself,  and 
formed  by  a  continued  effusion  of  the  breath,  and  a  certain  con- 
formation of  the  mouth,  without  any  alteration  in  the  position, 
or  any  motion  of  the  organs  of  speech,  from  the  moment  the  vocal 
sound  commences,  till  it  ends. 

A  consonant  is  a  simple,  articulate  sound,  imperfect  by  itself, 
but  which  joined  with  a  vowel,  forms  a  complete  sound,  by  a 
particular  motion  or  contact  of  the  organs  of  speech. 

Some  grammarians  subdivide  vowels  into  the  simple  and  the 
compound.  But  t>  ere  does  not  appear  to  be  any  foundation  for  the 
distinction.  Simplicity  is  essential  to  the  nature  of  a  vowel,  which 
excludes  every  degree  of  mixed  or  compound  sounds.  It  requires, 
.according  to  the  definition,  but  one  conformation  of  the  organs  of 
speech,  to  form  it,  and  no  motion  in  the  organs,  whilst  it  is  forming. 

Consonants  are  divided  into  mutes  and  semi-vowels. 

The  mutes  cannot  be  sounded  at  all,  without  the  aid  of 
a  vowel.     They  are  6,  p,  t,  d,  k,  and  c  and  g  hard. 

Tl^s  semi-vowels  have  an  imperfect  sound  of  themselves 
They  are/,  /,  m,  n,  r,  r,  s,  z,  a?,  and  c  and  g  soft. 

Four  of  the  semi-vowels,  namely,  /,  m,  n,  r,  are  also 
distinguished  by  the  name  of  liquids,  from  their  readily 
uniting  with  other  consonants,  and  flowing,  as  it  were  into 
their  sounds. 

*  The  letters  w  and  y,  are  of  an  ambiguous  nature ;  being  consonants  at  th« 
(beginning  of  words,  and  vowels  at  the  end.  Encydopadia  Briiannica 

WALKER'S  Critical  Pronouncing  Dictionary,  page  24,  third  ediHon, 
PERRY'S  English  Dictionary,  Preface,  pag«  7. 


16  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 

We  have  shown  above,  that  it  is  essential  to  the  nature  of  a 
consonant,  that  it  cannot  be  fully  uttered  vs^ithout  the  aid  of  a 
vowel.  We  may  further  observe,  that  even  the  names  of  the  con 
sonants,  as  they  are  pronounced  in  reciting  the  alphabet,  require 
the  help  of  vowels  to  express  them.  In  pronouncing  tlie  nam^a 
of  the  mutes,  the  assistant  vowels  follow  the  consonants:  as,  h^. 
pe,  fe,  rfe,  ka.  In  pronouncing  the  names  of  the  semi- vowels,  tlie 
vowels  generally J9recc6/c  the  consonants:  as,  ef  el,  em,  tn,  ar,  es 
ex.     The  exceptions  are,  ce,  ge,  ve,  zed. 

This  distinction  between  the  nature  and  the  name  of  a  conso 
nant,  is  of  great  importance,  and  should  be  well  explained  to  the 
pupil.  They  are  frequently  confounded  by  writers  on  grammar 
Observations  and  reasonings  on  the  name,  are  often  appUed  to 
explain  the  nature,  of  a  consonant :  and,  by  this  means,  the  stu- 
dent is  led  into  error  and  perplexity,  respecting  these  elements 
of  language.  It  should  be  impressed  on  his  mind,  that  the  name 
of  every  consonant  is  a  complex  sound ;  but  that  the  consonant  it- 
self, is  always  sl  simple  sound. 

Some  writers  have  described  the  mutes  and  semi-vowels,  With 
their  subdivisions,  nearly  in  the  following  manner. 

The  inuies  are  those  consonants  whose  sounds  cannot  be  pro- 
tracted. The  semi-vowels^  such  whose  sounds  can  be  continued 
at  pleasure,  partaking  of  the  nature  of  vowels,  from  which  they 
derive  their  name. 

The  mutes  may  be  subdivided  into  pure  and  impure.  The  pure 
are  those  whose  sounds  cannot  be  at  all  prolonged :  they  are 
A,  j>,  t.  The  impure,  are  those  whose  sounds  may  be  continued^ 
though  for  a  very  short  space  :  they  are  6,  d,  g. 

The  semi-vowels  may  be  subdivided  into  vocal  and  aspirated 
The  Yocal  are  those  which  are  formed  by  the  voice ;  the  aspirated, 
those  formed  by  the  breath.  There  are  eleven  vocal,  and  five 
aspirated.  The  vocal  are  ?,  m,  n,  r,  v,  w^y^  z,  th  flat,  zh,  ng  :  the 
aspirated,/.  A,  s,  th  sharp,  sh.  I 

The  vocal  semi-vowels  may  be  subdivided  into  pure  and  im- 
pure. The  pure  are  those  which  are  formed  entirely  by  the 
voice :  the  impure,  such  as  have  a  mixture  of  breath  with  the 
voice.  There  are  seven  pure — /,  m,  n,  r,  w,  y^ng  ;  four  impure 
— V,  z,  ih  flat,  z/i. 

A  diphthong  is  the  lanion  of  two  vowels,  pronounced  by 
a  simple  impulse  of  the  voice ;  as  ea  in  beat,  ou  in  sound. 

A  triphthong  is  the  union  of  three  vowels,  pronounceil 
n  like  manner  ;  as,  eau  in  beau,  iew  in  view. 

A  proper  diphthong  is  that  in  which  both  tlie  vowels  arc 
sounded ;  as,  oi  in  voice,  ou  in  ounce. 

An  improper  diphthong  has  but  one  of  the  vowels 
sounded ;  as,  ea  in  eagle,  oa  in  boat. 

Each  of  the  diphthongal  letters  was,  doubtless,  originally  h^rd 
in  pronouncing  the  words  which  contain  them.  Though  this  is  not 


ORTHOGRAPHY.  J7 

tlie  case  iit  present,  witli  respect  to  niar«y  of  them,  these  combina- 
tions still  retain  the  nameofdiphthongs  ;  but,  to  distinguish  them, 
they  are  marked  by  the  term  improper.  As  the  diphthong 
derives  its  name  and  naiure  from  its  sound,  and  not  from  its 
letters,  and  properly  denotes  a  doul)le  vowel  sound,  no  union  of 
two  vowels,  where  one  is  silent,  can,  in  strictness,  be  entitled  to 
thjtt  appellation  ;  and  the  single  letters  i  and  u,  when  pronounced 
long,  must,  in  this  view,  be  considered  as  diphthongs.  The  triph- 
thongs, having  at  most  but  two  sounds,  are  merely  ocular,  and 
are,  therefore,  by  some  grammarians,  classed  with  the  diphthongs. 

SECTION  II.     General  observations  on  the  sounds  of  the  letters 

A 

»4  has  four  sounds  ;  the  long  or  slender,  the  broad,  the  short 
or  open,  and  the  middle. 

The  long  ;  as  in  name,  basin,  creation. 

The  broad  ;  as  in  call,  wall,  all. 

The  short ;  as  in  barrel,  fancy,  glass. 

The  middle  ;  as  in  far,  farm,  fathe»*. 

The  diphthong  aa  generally  sounds  like  a  short  in  proper 
names  ;  as  in  Balaam,  Canaan,  Isaac  ;  but  not  in  Baal,  Gaal. 

w^e  has  the  sound  of  long  e.  It  is  sometimes  found  in  Latin 
words.  Some  authors  retain  this  form  ;  as,  aenigma,  asquator,  &.c.; 
but  others  have  laid  it  aside,  and  write  enigma,  Cesar,  Eneas,  &c. 

The  diphthong  ai  has  exactly  the  long  slender  sound  of  a,  as 
m  pail,  tail,  &c. ;  pronounced  pale,  tale,  &c. :  except  plaid,  again 
raillery,  fountain,  Britain,  and  a  few  others. 

w^it  is  generally  sounded  like  the  broad  a  :  as  in  taught,  caught, 
&c.  Sometimes  like  the  short  or  open  a ;  as  in  aunt,  flaunt, 
gauntlet,  &c.  It  has  the  sound  of  long  o  in  hautboy  ;  and  that 
of  0  short  in  laurel,  laudanum,  &c. 

Aio  has  always  the  sound  of  broad  a;  as  in  bawl,  scrawl,  crawl. 

Ay,  like  its  near  relation  ai,  is  pronuuncea  like  the  long  slen- 
der sound  of  a ;  as  in  pay,  day,  delav. 

B 

B  keeps  one  unvaried  sound,  at  the  beginning,  middle,  and 
end  of  words  ;  as  in  baker,  number,  rhubarb,  &c. 

In  some  words  it  is  silent ;  as  in  thumb,  debtor,  subtle,  &c.  In 
others,  besides  being  silent,  it  lengthens  the  syllable  ;  as  in 
climb,  comb,  tomb. 

C 
C  has  two  different  sounds. 

A  hard  sound  like  k,  before  a,  o,  w,  r,  l,  t ;  as  in  cart,  cottage, 
curious,  craft,  tract,  cloth,  &c. ;  and  when  it  ends  a  syllable ;  as 
in  victim,  flaccid. 

A  soft  sound  like  s  before  e,  t,  and  y,  generally ;  as  in  centre, 
face,  civil,  cymbal,  mercy,  &c.  It  has  sometimes  the  sound  of 
gh ;  as  in  ocean,  social. 

C  is  mute  in  czar,  czarine,  victuals,  &c. 
C,  says  Dr.  Johnson,  according  to  English  orthography,  never 
B  2 


18  EiNGLISII  GRAiMMAR.  H 

ends  a  word ;  and  therefore  we  find  in  our  best  dictionaries, 
stick,  block,  publick,  politick,  &c.  But  many  writers  of  latter 
j'ears  omit  the  k  in  words  of  two  or  more  syllables ;  and  this  prac- 
tice is  gaining  ground,  though  it  is  productive  of  irregularities  j 
such  as  writing  mimic  and  mimickry  ;  traffic  and  trafficking. 

Ch  is  commonly  sounded  like  Ich;  as  in  church,  chin,  chaff, 
charter :  but  in  words  derived  from  the  Greek,  has  the  sound  of 
k;  as  in  chymist,  scheme,  chorus,  chyle,  distich ;  and  in  foreign 
names;  as  Achish,  Baruch,  Enoch,  &-c. 

CA,  in  some  words  derived  from  the  French,  takes  the  sound  ot 
sh;  as  in  chaise,  chagrin,  chevalier,  machine. 

Ch  in  arch,  before  a  vowel,  sounds  like  k ;  as  in  archangel 
archives.  Archipelago  ;  except  in  arched,  archery,  archer,  and 
arch-enemy:  but  before  a  consonant  it  always  sounds  like  tch  j 
as  in  archbishop,  archduke,  archpresbyter,  &ic,  Ch  is  silent  in 
schedule,  schism,  and  yacht. 

D 

D  keeps  one  uniform  sound,  at  the  beginning,  middle,  and  end 
of  words  ;  as  in  death,  bandage,  kindred  ;  utdess  it  may  be  said 
to  take  the  sound  off,  in  stuffisd,  tripped.  &c.  stuft,  tript,  &c. 

E 

E  has  three  different  sounds. 

A  long  sound  ;  as  in  scheme,  glebe,  severe,  pulley. 

A  short  sound  ;  as  in  men,  bed,  clemencv. 

An  obscure  and  scarcely  perceptible  sound ;  as,  open,  lucre, 
participle. 

It  has  sometimes  the  sound  of  middle  a ;  as  in  clerk,  serjoant, 
and  sometimes  that  of  short  i ;  as  in  England,  yes,  pretty. 

E  is  always  mute  at  the  end  of  a  word,  except  in  monosylla 
bles  that  have  no  other  vowel ;  as,  me,  he,  she :  or  in  substan 
tives  derived  from  the  Greek ;  as,  catastrophe,  epitome,  Penelope. 
It  is  used  to  soften  and  modify  the  foregoing  consonants ;  as,  force, 
rage,  since,  obhge :  or  to  lengthen  the  preceding  vowel ;  as,  can, 
cane ;  pin,  pine  ;  rob,  robe. 

The  diphthong  ea  is  generally  sounded  like  e  long ;  as  in  appear 
beaver,  creature,  &c.  It  has  also  the  sound  of  short  e ;  as  in 
breath,  meadow,  treasure.  And  it  is  sometimes  pronounced  like 
the  long  and  slender  a  ;  as  in  bear,  break,  great. 

Eau  has  the  sound  of  long  o ;  as  in  beau,  flambeau,  portmar 
teau.     In  beauty  and  its  compounds,  it  has  the  sound  of  long  u, 

Ei,  in  general,  sounds  the  same  as  long  and  slender  a;  as  in 
deign,  vein,  neighbour,  &c.  It  has  the  sound  of  long  e  in  seize, 
deceit,  receive,  either, neither,  &c.  It  is  sometimes  pronounced 
like  short*;  as  in  foreign,  forfeit,  sovereign,  &c. 

Eo  is  pronounced  like  c  long ;  as  in  people  ;  and  sometlmefl 
like  c  short ;  as  in  leopard,  jeopardy.  It  has  also  the  sound  ol 
short  u ;  as  in  dungeon,  sturgeon,  puncheon,  &c. 

Eu  is  always  sounded  like  long  n  or  ew ;  as  in  feud,  deuce. 

Ew  *«  almost  always  pronounced  like  long  u ;  as  in  few,  new,  dew 

Ey^  vfh^n  the  accent  is  on  it^  is  always  pro'uoyneefd  like  a  loiig' 


ORTHOGRAPHY  U 

as  In  bey,  grey,  convey ;  except  in  key,  ley,  where  it  is  soundei 
like  long  e. 

When  this  diplithong  is  unaccented,  it  takes  the  sound  of  e  long* 
as,  alley,  valley,  barley. 

F 

F  keeps  one  pure  unvaried  sound  at  the  beginning,  middle,  ano 
f.riA  of  words;  a«,  fancy,  muffin,  mischief,  &c. :  except  in  o/*,  in 
which  it  Jias  the  flat  sound  of  ov ;  but  not  in  composition  ;  as 
whereof,  thereof,  &c.  We  should  not  pronounce,  a  wive's  join 
ture,  a  calve's  head ;  but  a  wife's  jointure,  a  calf's  head. 

G 
G  has  two  sounds  :  one  hard  ;  as  in  gay,  go,  gun  :  the  othci 
soft ;  as  in  gem,  giant. 

At  the  end  of  a  word  it  is  always  hard  ;  as  in  bag,  snug,  frog. 
It  is  hard  before  a,  o,  w,  Z,  and  r ;  as,  game,  gone,  gull,  glory, 
grandeur. 

G  before  c,  i,  and  i/,  is  soft ;  as  in  genius,  gesture,  ginger, 
Egypt ;  except  in  get,  gewgaw,  finger,  craggy,  and  some  others. 

G  is  mute  before  n;  as  in  gnasb,  sign,  foreign,  &c. 

G;i,  at  the  end  of  a  word,  or  syllable  accented,  gives  the  pre- 
ceding vowel  a  long  sound  ;  as  in  resign,  impugn,  oppugn, 
imj)regn,  impugned ;  pronounced  impune,  imprene,  &c. 

Gh,  at  the  beginning  of  a  word,  has  the  sound  of  the  hard 
^;  as,  ghost,  ghastly  :  in  the  middle,  and  sometimes  at  the  end, 
it  is  quite  silent ;  as  in  right,  high,  plough,  mighty. 

At  the  end  it  has  often  the  sound  of/;  as  in  laugh,  cough, 
lough.   Sometimes  only  the  g  is  sounded  ;  as  in  burgh,  burgher. 

H 

The  sound  signified  by  this  letter,  is,  as  before  observed,  an 
articulate  sound,  and  not  merely  an  aspiration.  It  is  heard  in 
the  words,  hat,  horse,  Hull.  It  is  seldom  mute  at  the  beginning  of 
a  word.   It  is  always  silent  after  r  ;  as,  rhetoric,  rheum,  rhubarb. 

//  final,  preceded  by  a  vowel,  is  always  silent  ;  as,  ah  !  hah  I 
oh  !  foil !  Sarah,  Messiah. 

From  the  faintness  of  the  sound  of  this  letter,  in  many  words, 
and  its  total  silence  in  others,  added  to  the  negligence  of  tutors, 
and  the  inattention  of  pupils,  it  has  happened,  that  many  persons 
nave  become  almost  incapable  of  acquiring  its  just  and  full  pro- 
nunciation. It  is,  therefore,  incumbent  on  teachers,  to  be  particu- 
larly careful  to  inculcate  a  clear  and  distinct  utterance  of  this 
sound. 

I 

/has  a  long  sound  ;  as  in  fine  :  and  a  short  one  ;  as  in  fin. 

The  long  sound  is  always  marked  by  the  e  final  in  monosylla- 
bles;  as  thin,  thine;  except  give,  live.  Before  r  it  is  often 
sounded  hke  a  short  u  ;  as  flirt,  first.  In  some  words  it  has  the 
sound  of  c  long ;  as  in  machine,  bombazine,  magazine. 

The  diphthong  ia  is  frequently  sounded  like  ya  ;  as  in  <  hris 
tian,  fiha!,  poinard  ;  pronounced  christ-yan,  &c.  It  has  some- 
times the  sound  of  short  i ;  as  in  carriage,  marriage,  parhamenL 


20  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 


1 


It  sounds  in  general  like  e  long  ;  as  in  grief,  thief,  grenadier 
It  has  also  the  sound  of  long  i  ;  aa  in  die,  pie,  lie :  and  sonie- 
tinjes  that  of  short  i ;  as  in  sieve. 

hu  has  the  sound  of  long  u  ;  as  in  lieu,  adieu,  purlieu. 

/o,  when  the  accent  is  upon  the  first  vowel,  forms  two  dls- 
inct  syllahles  ;  as,  priory,  violet,  violent.  The  terniinations  tion 
and  51*0/1,  are  sounded  exactly  like  the  word  shun  ;  except  when 
he  i  is  preceded  by  sor  x  ;  as  in  question,  digestion,  combustion, 
mixtion,  &c. 

The  triphthong  iou  is  sometimes  pronounced  distinctly  in  tM'o 
syllables;  as  in  bilious,  various,  abstemious.  But  these  vowel? 
often  coalesce  into  one  syllable  ;  as  in  precious,  factious,  noxious. 

J 

J  is  pronounced  exactly  like  soft  g ;  except  in  hallelujah, 
where  it  is  pronounced  like  y. 

JRThas  the  sound  of  c  hard,  and  is  used  before  c  and  i,  where, 
according  to  English  analogy,  c  would  be  soft ;  as,  kept,  king, 
skirts.  It  is  not  sounded  before  n  ;  as  in  knife,  knell,  knocker. 
It  is  never  doubled,  except  in  Habbakkuk  ;  but  c  is  used  before 
it,  to  shorten  the  vowel  by  a  double  consonant;  as,  cockle,  pic 
Kle,  sucker. 

L 

L  has  always  a  soft  liquid  sound  ;  as  in  love,  billow,  quarrel. 
It  is  sometimes  mute  ;  as  in  half,  talk,  psalm.  The  custom  is  to 
double  the  I  at  the  end  of  monosyllables  ;  as,  mill,  will,  fall :  ex- 
cept where  a  diphthong  precedes  it ;  as,  hail,  toil,  soil. 

Le,  at  the  end  of  words,  is  pronounced  like  a  weak  el ;  in 
which  the  c  is  almost  mute  ;  as,  table,  shuttle. 

M 

M  has  always  the  same  sound ;  as,  murmur,  monumental ; 
except  in  comptroller,  which  is  pronounced  controller. 

N 

JSr  has  two  sounds  :  the  one  pure  ;  as  in  man,  net,  noble  ;  the 
other  a  ringing  sound  like  ng  ;  as  in  thank,  banquet,  &c. 

JVis  mute  when  it  ends  a  syllable,  and  is  preceded  by  m ;  as, 
hymn,  solemn,  autumn. 

The  participial  ing  must  always  have  its  ringing  sound ;  as, 
writing,  reading,  speaking.  Some  writers  have  supposed  that 
when  ing  is  preceded  by  ing^  it  should  be  pronounced  in ;  as, 
smging,  bringing,  should  be  sounded  singin,  bringin :  but  as  it  is  a 
good  rule,  with  respect  to  pronunciation,  to  adhere  to  the  written 
words,  unless  custom  has  clearly  decided  otherwise,  it  does  not 
»eem  proper  to  adopt  this  innovation. 

O 

O  has  a  long  sound ;  as  in  note,  bone,  obedient,  over  ;  and  a 
»hort  one  ;  as  in  not,  got,  lot,  trot. 

It  has  sometimes  the  short  sound  of  u  ;  as,  son,  come,  attor- 
ney. And  in  some  words  it  is  sounded  like  oo ;  as  in  prove, 
move  ;  and  often  like  au  /  as  in  nor,  for,  lord. 


ORTHOGRAPHY.  21 

The  diphthong  oa  is  regularly  pronounced  as  the  long  sound  of 
f  ;  as  in  boat,  oat,  coal ;  except  in  broad,  abroad,  groat,  where  it 
£akes  the  sound  of  broad  a  ;  as,  brawd,  &lc.    ■ 

Oe  has  the  sound  of  single  c.  It  is  sometimes  long ;  as  in  foe- 
tus, Antoeci :  and  sometimes  short ;  as  in  oeconomics,  cecumeni- 
c.il.  In  doe,  foe,  sloe,  toe,  throe,  hoe,  and  bilboes,  it  is  sounded 
exactly  like  long  o. 

Oi  has  almost  universally  the  double  sound  of  a  broad  and  c 
long  united,  as  in  boy ;  as  boil,  toil,  spoil,  joint,  point,  anoint :  which 
sliould  never  be  pronounced  as  if  written  bile,  spile,  tile,  &c. 

Oo  ahnost  always  preserves  its  regular  sound ;  as  in  moon, 
*oon,  food.  It  has  a  shorter  sound  in  wool,  good,  foot,  and  a  few 
others.  In  blood  and  flood  it  sounds  like  short  w.  Door  and 
floor  should  always  be  pronounced  as  if  written  dore  and  flore. 

The  dipt!iong  ou  has  six  different  sounds.  The  first  and  proper 
sound  is  equivalent  to  ow  in  down  ;  as  in  bound,  found,  surrounds 

I'lie  second  is  that  of  short  u  ;  as  in  enough,  trouble,  journey 

The  third  is  that  of  oo;  as  in  soup,  youth,  tournament. 

The  fourth  is  that  of  long  o ;  as  in  though,  mourn,  poultice. 

The  fifth  is  that  of  short  o ;  as  in  cough,  trough. 

The  sixth  is  that  oi'awe  ;  as  in  ought,  brought,  thought. 

Ow  is  generally  sounded  like  ou  in  thou  ;  as  in  brown,  dowry, 
Bhower.  It  has  also  the  sound  of  long  o  ;  as  in  snow,  grown, 
bestow. 

The  diphthong  oy  is  but  another  form  for  oi,  and  is  pronounced 
exactly  like  it. 

P 

P  haf^always  the  same  sound,  except,  perhaps,  in  cupboard, 
where  it  sounds  like  b.  It  is  sometimes  mute ;  as  in  psalm,  psal- 
ter, Ptolemy :  and  between  m  and  t ;  as,  tempt,  empty,  pre- 
sumptuous. 

Ph  is  generally  pronounced  like/;  as  in  philosophy,  philan- 
thropy, Philip. 

In  nephew  and  Stephen,  it  has  the  sound  of  v.  In  apophthegem, 
phthisis,  phthisic,  and  phthisical,  both  letters  are  entirely  dropped, 

a 

Q  is  always  followed  by  u  ;  as,  quadrant,  queen,  quire. 

Qu  is  sometimes  sounded  like  k;  as,  conquer,  liquor,  risqir^e* 
R 

it  has  a  rough  sound  ;  as  in  Rome,  river,  rage  :  and  a  8m*>otn 
one  ;  as  in  bard,  card,  regard. 

Re  at  the  end  of  many  words,  is  pronounced  like  a  weak  *t 
as  in  theatre,  sepulchre,  massacre. 

S 

ShsLS  two  different  sounds. 

A  soft  and  flat  soUnd  like  z  ;  as,  besom,  nasal,  dismal. 

A  sharp  hissing  sound  ;  as,  saint,  sister,  Cyprus. 

Ft  is  always  sharp  at  the  beginning  of  words. 

At  the  end  of  words  it  takes  the  soft  sound ;  as,  his,  was,  tr#  5, 


22  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 

eyes ;  except  in  the  words  this,  thus,  us,  yes,  rebus,  surplus,  &o. ;    ' 
and  in  words  terminati-ng  with  ous. 

It  sounds  like  2  before  ton,  if  a  vowel  goes  before  :  as,  intrusion  , 
but  like  s  sharp,  if  it  follows  a  consonant ;  as,  conversion.  It  also    ' 
sounds  like  2  before  c  mute  ;  as,  amuse  ;  and  before  y  final ;  as,   , 
rosy ;  and  in  the  words  bosom,  desire,  wisdom,  &c. 

S  is  mute  in  isle,  island,  demesne,  viscount. 
T 

T  generally  sounds,  as  in  tak^,  tempter.  T  before  m,  ^rhen 
the  accent  precedes^  sounds  like  tch ;  as,  nature,  virtue,  are  prc^- 
nounced,  natchure,  virtchue.  Ti  before  a  vowel  has  the  sound 
ot'sh  ;  as  in  salvation :  except  in  such  words  as  tierce>  liara,  &c. 
and  unless  an  s  goes  before  ;  as,  question  ;  and  excepting  also 
derivatives  from  words  ending  in  ty;  as,  mighty,  mightier. 

27i  has  two  sounds  :  the  one  soft  and  flat ;  as,  thus,  whether 
heathen  :  the  other  hard  and  sharp  ;  as,  thing,  think,  breath. 

TA,  at  the  beginning  of  words,  is  sharp  ;  as  in  thank,  thick. 
thunder :  except  in  that,  then,  thus,  thither,  and  some  others. 
T/i,  at  the  end  of  words,  is  also  sharp ;  as,  death,  breath,  mouth  ' 
except  in  with,  booth,  beneath,  &c. 

TO,  in  the  middle  of  words,  is  sharp  ;  as,  panther,  orthodox,  mis- 
anthrope :  except  worthy,  farthing,  brethren,  and  a  few  others. 

Thy  between  two  vowels,  is  generally  flat  in  words  purely 
Enghsh  ;  as,  father,  heathen,  together,  neither,  mother. 

Thy  between  two  vowels,  in  words  from  the  learned  languages, 
is  generally  sharp  ;    as,  apathy,  sympathy,  Athens,  apothecary. 

TJi  is  sometimes  pronounced  like  simple  / ;  as,  Thomas,  thyme, 
Thames,  asthma.  • 

U 

U  has  three  sounds,  viz. 

A  long  sound  ;  as  in  mule,  tube,  cubie, 

A  short  sound  ;  as  in  dull,  gull,  custariL 

An  obtuse  sound,  like  00  ;  as  in  bull,  full,  bushel. 

The  strangest  deviation  of  this  letter  from  its  natural  sound,  is 
m  the  words  busy,  business,  bury,  and  burial ;  which  are  pro- 
nounced bizzy,  bizness,  berry,  and  berrial. 

A  is  now  often  used  befoi*e  words  beginning  with  u  long,  and 
an  always  before  those  that  begin  with  u  short ;  as,  a  union,  a 
university,  a  useful  book;  an  uproar,  an  usher,  an  umbrella. 

The  diphthong  wa,  has  sometimes  the  sound  of  wa ;  as  in  as- 
suage, persuade,  antiquary.  It  has  also  the  sound  of  middle  a  ; 
as  in  guard,  guardian,  guarantee. 

67e  is  often  sounded  like  we  ;  as  in  quench,  querist,  conquest. 
It  has  also  the  sound  of  long  u ;  as  in  cue,  hue,  ague.  In  a  few 
words,  it  is  pronounced  like  e  short ;  as  in  guest,  guess.  In  some 
words  it  is  entirely  sunk  ;  as  in  antique,  oblique,  jM*orogue,  cata- 
logue, dialogue,  &c. 

Ui  is  frequently  pronounced  wi;  as  in  languid,  anguish,  extin- 
guish. It  has  sometimes  the  sound  of  i  long  ;  as  in  guide,  guile, 
*d4sguise :  and  sometimes  that  of  i  short ;  as  in  guilt,  guinea, 


ORTHOGRAPHY.  83 

liuildhall.  In  some  words  it  is  sounded  like  long  u ;  as  in  juice 
suit,  pursuit :  and  after  r,  like  oo  ;  as  in  bruise,  fruit,  recruit. 

Uo  is  pronounced  like  wo  ;  as  in  quote,  quorum,  quondam. 

(Jy  has  the  sound  of  long  c ;  as  in  obloquy,  soliloquy ;  pro- 
nounced obloquee,  &c. ;  except  by,  and  its  derivatives. 

Fhas  the  sound  of  flat/;  and  bears  the  same  relation  to  it,  as 
t  (Joes  to  p,  d  to  tf  hard  g  to  k,  and  z  to  5.  It  has  also  one  uni 
form  sound  ;  as,  vain,  vanity,  love. 

W 

TV,  w^hen  a  consonant,  has  nearly  the  sound'of  oo;  as  water  re- 
sembles the  sound  ofooater ;  but  that  it  has  a  stronger  and  quick- 
er sound  than  oo,  ami  has  a  formation  essentially  different,  will 
appear  to  any  person  who  pronounces,  with  attention,  the  words 
wo,  woo,  beware ;  and  who  reflects  that  it  will  not  admit  the  arti- 
cle an  before  it ;  which  oo  would  admit.  In  some  words  it  is  not 
sounded  ;  as  in  answer,  sword,  wholesome  :  it  is  always  silent 
before  r ;  as  in  wrap,  wreck,  wrinkle,  wrist,  wrong,  wry,  be- 
wray, &c. 

fT before  h  is  pronounced  as  if  it  were  after  the  h ;  as,  why, 
hwy  ;  when,  hwen  ;  what,  hwat. 

TF  is  often  joined  to  o  at  the  end  of  a  syllable,  without  affect- 
ing the  sound  of  that  vowel ;  as  in  crow,  blow,  grow,  know, 
row,  flow,  &c. 

When  10  is  a  vowel,  and  is  distinguished  in  the  pronunciation, 
it  has  exactly  the  same  sound  as  u  would  have  in  the  same  situ- 
ation ;  as.  di-aw,  crew,  view,  now  sawyer,  vowel,  outlaw 

X 
•X  has  three  sounds,  viz. 

It  is  sounded  like  z  at  the  beginning  of  proper  names  of  Greek 
original ;  as  in  Xanthus,  Xenophon,  Xerxes. 

It  has  a  sharp  sound  like  ks,  when  it  ends  a  syllable  with  the 
accent  upon  it ;  as  exit,  exercise,  excellence  ;  or  when  the  ac 
cent  is  on  the  next  syllable,  if  it  begins  with  a  consonant ;  as^ 
Dxcuse,  extent,  expense. 

It  has,  generally,  a  flat  sound  like  g:^,  when  the  accent  is  not 
on  it,  and  the  following  syllable  begins  with  a  voWel ;  as,  exert,, 
exist,  example  ;  pronounced,  egzert,  egzist,  egzample. 

Y,  when  a  consonant,  has  nearly  the  sound  of  ce  ;  as,  youth, 
Vork,  resemble  the  sound  of  eeouth,  eeork :  but  that  this  is  not 
its  exact  sound,  will  be  clearly  perceived  by  pronouncing  the 
words  ye,  yes,  new-year,  in  which  its  just  and  prt)per  sound  is  as- 
certained. It  not  only  requires  a  stronger  exertion  of  the  organs  of 
speech  to  pronounce  it,  than  is  required  to  pronounce  ee  ;  but  its 
formaiion  is  essentially  difierent.  It  will  not  admft  of  a?i  before 
it,  as  ee  will  in  the  following  example  ;  an  eel.  The  opinion  that 
y  and  w,  when  they  begin  a  word  or  syllable,  take  exactly  the 
wound  of  ee  and  oo,  has  induced  some  grammarians  to  asserti. 
that  these  letters  are  always  vowels  or  diphthongs. 


1 


24  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 

When  2/  is  a  vowel,  it  has  exactly  the  same  sound  as  i  would 
have  in  the  same  situation;  as,  rhyme,  system,- justify,  pyran: 
party,  fancy,  hungry. 

Z 

Z  has  the  sound  of  an  s  uttered  with  a  closer  compression  of 
the  palate  by  the  tongue :  it  is  the  flat  s ;  as,  freeze,  frozen,  brazen. 

It  may  be  proper  to  remark,  that  the  sounds  of  the  letters  vary, 
as  they  are  differently  associated,  and  that  the  pronunciation  of 
these  associations  depends  upon  the  position  of  the  accent.  It 
may  also  be  observed,  that,  in  order  to  pronounce  accurately, 
great  attention  must  be  paid  to  the  vowels  which  ^re  not  ac- 
cented. There  is  scarcely  any  thing  which  more  distinguishes 
a  person  of  a  poor  education,  from  a  person^of  a  good  one,  than 
the  pronunciation  of  the  unaccented  vowels.  When  vowels  ar<B 
under  the  accent^  the  best  speakers  and  the  lowest  of  the  people, 
with  very  few  exceptions,  pronounce  them  in  the  same  manner; 
but  the  unaccented  vowels  in  the  mouths  of  the  former,  have  a 
distinct,  open,  and  specific  sound,  while  the  latter  often  totally 
sink  them,  or  change  them  into  some  other  sound. 

SECTION  III.  Th^  nature  of  articulation  explained, 
A  CONCISE  account  of  the  origin  and  formation  of  the  sounds 
emitted  by  the  human  voice,  may,  perhaps,  not  improperly,  be 
here  introduced.  It  may  gratify  the  ingenious  student,  and 
serve  to  explain  more  fully  the  nature  of  articulation,  and  the 
radical  distinction  between  vowels  and  consonants. 

Human  voice  is  air  sent  out  from  the  lungs,  and  so  agitated  or 
modified  in  its  passage  through  the  windpipe  and  larynx,  as  to 
become  distinctly  audible.  The  windpipe  is  that  tube,  which,  o* 
touching  the  forepart  of  our  throat  externally,  we  feel  hard  and 
uneven.  It  conveys  air  into  the  lungs  for  the  purpose  of  breath- 
ing and  speech.  The  top  or  upper  part  of  the  windpipe  is  called 
the  larynx,  consisting  of  four  or  five  cartilages,  that  may  be^ex- 
panded  or  brought  together,  by  the  action  of  certain  muscles  which 
operate  all  at  the  same  time.  In  the  middle  of  the  larynx  there 
is  a  small  opening,  called  the  glottis,  through  which  the  breath 
and  voice  are  conveyed.  This  opening  is  not  wider  than  on« 
tenth  of  an  inch ;  and,  therefore,  the  breath  transmitted  through 
it  from  the  lungs,  must  pass  with  considerable  velocity.  The 
voice  thus  formed,  is  strengthened  and  softened  by  a  reverbera- 
tion from  the  palate  and  other  hollow  places  in  the  inside  of  the 
mouth  and  nostrils ;  and  as  these  are  better  or  worse  shaped  for 
this  reverberaticfi^  the  voice  is  said  to  be  more  or  less  agreeable. 
If  we  consider  the  many  varieties  of  sound,  which  one  and  the 
game  human  voice  is  capable  of  uttering,  together  with  the  small 
ness  of  the  diameter  of  the  glottis ;  and  reflect,  that  the  same  di 
ameter  must  always  produce  the  same  tpne,  and,  consequently, 
that  to  every  change  of  tone  a  correspondent  change  of  diameter 

ie  necessary  ;  we  must  be  filled  with  admiration  at  the  mechanii 

of  these  parts,  and  the  fineness  of  the  fibres  that  operate  in  pi 


1 


ORTHOGRAPHY.  25 

ducing  effects  so  minute,  so  various,  and  in  their  proportions  so 
exactly  uniform.  For  it  admits  of  proof,  that  the  diameter  of  the 
liuman  glottis  is  capable  of  mere  than  sixty  distinct  degrees  of 
contraction  or  enlargement,  by  each  of  which  a  different  note  is 
produced  ;  and  yet  the  greatest  diameter  of  that  aperture,  as  be- 
iotv  observed,  does  not  exceed  one  tenth  of  an  inch. 

Speech  is  made  u^t  of  articulate  voices  ;  and  what  we  call  artU 
culation,  is  performed,  not  by  the  lungs,  windpipe,  or  larynx,  but 
by  the  action  of  the  throat,  palate,  teeth,  tongue,  hps,  and  nostrils. 
Articulation  begins  not,  till  the  breath,  or  voice,  has  passed 
through  the  larynx. 

The  simplest  articulate  voices  are  those  which  proceed  from 
an  open  mouth,  and  are  by  grammarians  called  vow^eZ  sounds.  In 
Iransmitting  these,  the  aperture  of  the  mouth  may  be  pretty  large, 
or  somewhat  smaller  or  very  small ;  which  is  one  cause  of  the 
variety  of  vowels  ;  a  particular  sound  being  produced  by  each 
particular  aperture.  Moreover,  in  passing  through  an  open 
M:outh,  the  voice  may  be  gently  acted  upoiij  by  the  li|)s,  or  by  the 
toigue  and  palate,  or  by  the  tongue  and  throat ;  whence  another 
eonrce  of  variety  in  vowel  sounds. 

Thus  ten  or  twelve  simple  vowel  sounds  may  be  formed,  agree- 
ably to  the  plan  in  page  13  ;  and  the  learners,  by  observing  the 
position  of  their  mouth,  lips,  tongue,  &c.  when  they  are  uttering 
the  sounds,  will  perceive  that  A^arious  operations  of  these  organs 
of  speech,  are  necessary  to  the  production  of  the  different  vowel 
rounds  ;  and  that  by  minute  variations  they  may  all  be  distinctly 
pronounced. 

When  the  voice,  in  its  passage  through  the  mouth,  is  totally  in- 
tercepted,  or  strongly  compressed,  there  is  formed  a  certain  modifi- 
cation of  articulate  sound,  which,  as  expressed  by  a  character 
in  writing,  is  called  a  consonant.  Silence  is  the  effect  of  a  total 
interception  ;  and  indistinct  sound,  of  a  strong  colnpression  ;  and 
tl  erefore  a  consonant  is  not  of  itself  a  distinct  articulate  voice 
an  1  its  influence  in  varying  the  tones  of  language  is  not  clearly 
pel  ^.oived;  unless  it  be  accompanied  by  an  opening  of  the  mouth, 
that  IS,  by  a  vowel. 

By  making  the  experiment  with  attention,  the  student  will  per- 
ceive 'hat  each  of  the  mutes  is  formed  by  the  voice  being  intercept- 
ul,  by  "^he  lips,  by  the  tongue  and  palate,  or  by  the  tongue  and 
'  'hroat;  and  that  the  semi-vowels  are  formed  by  the  same  organs 
i^rongly  compressing  the  voice  in  its  passage,  but  not  totally  in- 
ttrcepting  it. 

The  elements  of  language,  according  to  the  different  seats 
where  they  are  formed,  or  the  several  organs  of  speech  chiefly 
concerned  in  their  pronunciation,  are  divided  into  several  classes, 
and  denominated  as  follows:  those  are  called  labials,  which  are 
fo**med  by  the  lips  ;  those  denials,  that  are  formed  with  the 
*ee<^^h  ;  palatals,  that  are  formed  by  the  palate  ;  and  nasals,  that 
ire  formed  by  the  nose. 

The  importance  of  obtaining,  in  early  life,  a  clear,  distinct,  and 

C 


2C  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 


tI 


accurate  knowledge  of  the  sounds  of  the  iirst  principles  of  lan- 
guage, and  a  wish  to  lead  young  minds  to  a  further  considera- 
tion of  a  suhject  so  curious  and  useful,  have  induced  the  com- 
piler to  bestow  particular  attention  on  the  preceding  part  of  this 
work.  Some  writers  think  that  these  subjects  do  not  propnerly 
constitute  any  part  of  grammar ;  and  consider  them  as  the  ex- 
clusive province  of  the  spelHng-book;  but  if  we  reflect,  that  let- 
ters and  their  sounds  are  the  constituent  principles  of  that  art, 
which  teaches  us  to  speak  and  write  with  propriety,  and  that,  in 
general,  very  little  knowledge  of  their  nature  is  acquired  by  the 
spelling-book,  we  must  admit,  that  they  properly  belong  to  gram 
mar  j  and  that  a'rational  consideration  of  these  elementary  prin- 
ciples of  language  is  an  object  that  demands  the  attention  of  the 
young  grammarian.  The  sentiments  of  a  very  judicious  and 
eminent'  "writer  (Quinctilian)  respecting  this  part  of  grammar, 
may,  perhaps,  be  properly  introduced  on  the  present  occasion. 

"Let  no  person  despise,  as  inconsiderable,  the  elements  oi 
grammar,  because  it  may  seem  to  them  a  matter  of  small  conse- 
quence, to  show  the  distinction  between  vowels  and  consonants, 
and  to  divide  the  latter  into  hquids  and  mutes.  But  they  who 
penetrate  into  the  innermost  parts  of  this  temple  of  science,  will 
there  discover  such  refinement  and  subtility  of  matter,  as  are  not 
only  proper  to  sharpen  the  understandings  of  young  persons,  but 
sufiicient  to  give  exercise  for  the  most  profound  knowledge  and 
erudition." 

The  elementary  sounds,  under  their  smallest  combination,  pro- 
duce a  syllable ;  syllables  properly  combined  produce  a  word  ; 
words  duly  combined  produce  a  sentence  ;  and  sentences  proper- 
ly combined  produce  an  Gration  or  discourse.  Thus  it  is,  says  Ha  r- 
III  s,  in  his  Hermes,  that  to  principles  apparently  so  trivia!  as  a  few 
plain  elementary  sounds,  we  owe  that  variety  of  articulate  voicesi 
which  has  beencuflicient  to  explain  the  sentiments  of  so  innume 
rable  a  multitude,  as  all  the  present  and  past  generations  of  men 

CHAPTER  II. 

OF  SYLLABLES,  AND  THE  RULES  FOR  ARRANGING    THEM. 

A  SYLLABLE  is  a  sound,  either  sinnple  or  compoimd- 
cd,  pronounced  by  a  single  impulse  of  the  voice,  and  con- 
stituting a  word,  or  part  of  a  word :  as,  a,  an,  ant 

Spelling  is  the  art  of  rightly  dividing  words  into  their-- 
syllables,  or  of  expressing  a  word  by  its  proper  letters.       j|| 

The  following  arc  the  general  rules  for  the  division  of  words 
into  syllables.  ^  . 

1  A  single  consonant  between  two  vowels,  must  be  joined  to 
the  latter  syllable :  as,  de-light,  bri-dal,  re-source :  except  the 
letter  x ;  as,  ex-ist,  ex-amine  :  and  except  likewise  words  com 
pounded ;  as,  up-on,  un-even,  dis-ease. 

2  Two  consooants  proper  to  begin  a  word,  must  not  be  sepa- 


ORTIIOGHAPITY.  27 

rated ;  as,  fa-ble,  sti-jfle.  But  when  ihey  come  between  two 
vowels,  and  are  such  as  cannot  begin  a  word,  they  must  be  di- 
vi(ied  ;  as,  ut-most,  un-der,  in-sect,  er-ror,  cof-iin. 

3  When  three  consonants  meet  in  the  middle?  of  a  word,  if 
they  can  begin  a  word,  and  the  preceding  vowel  be  pronounced 
long,  tliey  are  not  to  be  separated  ;  as,  de-throne,  de-stroy.  But 
when  the  vowel  of  the  preceding  syllable  is  pronounced  short, 
one  of  the  consonants  always  belongs  to  that  syllable ;  as,  dis- 
tract, dis-provc,  dis-train. 

4  VVhen  three  or  four  consonants,  which  arc  not  proper  to 
begin  a  syllable,  meet  between  two  vowels,  such  of  them  as  can 
begin  a  syllable  belong  to  the  latter,  the  rest  to  the  former  sylla- 
ble :  as,  ab-stain,  com-plete,  em-broil,  dan-dler,  dap-ple,  con- 
strain, hand-some,  parch-ment. 

5  Two  vowels,  not  being  a  diphthong,  must  be  divided  into 
separate  syllables  ;  as,  cru-el,  de-ni-al,  so-ci-e-ty. 

G  Compounded  words  must  be  traced  into  the  simple  words 
of  which  they  are  composed ;  as,  ice-house,  glow-worm,  over- 
power, never-the-less. 

7  Grammatical,  and  other  particular  terminations,  are  gene- 
rally separated:  as,  teach-est,  teach-eth,  teach-ing,  teach-er, 
contend-est,  great-er,  wretch-ed ;  good-ness,  free-dom,  false-hood. 

The  rules  for  dividing  words  into  syllables,  with  the  reasons  in 
support  of  them,  are  expressed  at  large  in  the  author's  English 
Spelling-book,  Thirteenth,  or  any  subsequent,  edition,  page  210 
—215. 

CHAPTER  m 
O/*  WORDS  in  general,  and  the  rules /or  spelling  them. 

WORDS  are  articulate  sounds,  used  by  common  con- 
sent, as  signs  of  our  ideas. 

A  word  of  one  syllable  i«  t  ?  med  a  Monosyllable ;  a  word 
of  two  syllables,  a  Di?^sy liable  ;  a  word  of  three  syllables,  a 
Trisyllable  ;  and  a  word  of  four  or  more  i  yllables,  a  Poly- 
syllable. 

All  words  are  either  primitive  or  derivative. 

A  primitive  word  is  that  which  cannot  be  reduced  to  any 
simpler  word  in  the  language  :  as,  man,  good,  content. 

A  derivative  word  is  that  which  may  be  reduced  to  ano- 
ther word  in  English  of  greater  simplicity  :  as  manful, 
goodness,  contentment,  Yorkshire,* 

i'  There  are  many  Enghsh  words  which,  though  compounds  in 
other  languages,  are  to  us  primitives ;  thus,  circumspect,  circum- 
vent, circumstance,  delude,  concave,  complicate,  &c.  primitive 
words  in  English  ;  will  be  found  derivatives,  when  traced  in  the 
Latin  tongue. 

*  A  compound  word  is  included  uuderthe  head  of  dei  ivative  words  :  as,  pen- 
knife,  t«acup,  looking  glass ;  may  ^  reduced  to  other  wo  ds  of  greater  simplicity. 


«^  ENGLISH  GRAMIMAR. 

The  ori]iogrn])liy  of  tlie  English  Language  is  attended  with 
inucli  uncertainty  and  perplexity.  Bnt  a  considerable  ]mrt  of 
this  inconvenience  may  he  remedied,  hy  attending  to  the  general 
laws  of  forinaj:ion  ;  and,  for  this  end,  the  learner  is  presented  with 
a  view  of  such  general  maxims  in  spelling  prim'tive  and  deriva- 
tive words,  as  have  been  almost  universally  received. 

RULE    I. 

Monosyllables  ending  with/,  /,  or  s,  preceded  by  a  single  vowel, 
dou!)le  the  final  consonant:  as,  stafl',  mill,  pass,  &c.  Tiie  only 
exceptions  are,  of,  if,  as,  is,  has,  was,  yes,  his,  this,  us,  and  thus. 

ROLE    11. 

Monosyllables  ending  with  any  consonant  but/,  I,  or  s,  and  pre- 
ceded by  a  single  vowel,  never  do^ible  the  final  consonant ;  ex- 
cepting add,  ebb,  butt,  e}^g,  odd,  err,  inn,  bunn,  purr,  and  buzz 

RULE    III. 

Words  ending  with  ?/,  preceded  by  a  consonant,  form  the  ])hi- 
rals  of  nouns,  the  persons  of  verbs,  verbal  nouns,  past  participles, 
comparatives,  and  superlatives,  by  changing  y  into  i  :  as,  sj)y, 
spies  ;  I  carry,  thou  carriest ;  he  can*ieth,  or  carries  ;  carrier, 
carried  ;  haj)py,  happier,  happiest. 

The  ])r|?sent  participle  in  ing^  retains  the  t/,  that  i  may  not  be 
doid)led;  as,  carry,  carrying  ;  bury,  burying,  &c. 

Bnt  ?/,  preceded  by  a  vowel,  in  such  instances  as  the  above,  is 
not  changed  ;  as,  boy,  boys  :  I  cloy,  he  cloys,  cloyed,  &c. ;  ex- 
ce])t  in  lay,  pay,  and  say  ;  from  which  ai'^  formed,  laid,  paid,  and 
said  ;  and  their  compounds,  unlaid,  uni)aid,  unsaid,  &c. 

RULE    IV. 

Words  ending  with  y,  preceded  by  a  consonant,  upon  assuming 
an  additional  syllable  beginning  with  a  consonant,  commonly 
change  y  into  i  ;  as,  happy,  happily,  happiness.  But  when  y  i« 
preceded  by  a  vowel,  it  is  very  rarely  changed  in  the  additional 
hyllal.^le  ;  as,  coy,  coyly;  boy,  boyish,  boyhood  :  annoy,  annoyer 
annoyance;  joy,  joyless,  joyful. 

RULE    V. 

IMonosyllables,  and  words  accented  on  the  last  syllable,  ending 
with  a  single  consonant  preceded  by  a  single  vowel,  double  that 
consonant,  when  they  take  another  syllable  beginning  with  a 
vowel:  as,  wit,  witty  ;  thin,  thinnish ;  to  abet,  an  abettor;  to 
begin,  a  beginner. 

Jhit  if  a  diphthong  precedes,  or  the  accent  is  on  the  preceding 
syllable,  the  consonant  remains  single  :  as,  to  toil,  toiling  .  to  ofjHj 
fer,  an  offering  ;  maid,  maiden,  &c.  fl 

RULE    VI.  ^' 

Words  ending  with  any  double  letter  but  Z,  and  taking  ??c9.?, 
lesSf  ly,  or  ful,  after  them,  preserve  the  letter  double  ;  as,  harm 
lessness,  carelessness,  carelessly,  stiffly,  successful,  distressful, 
Ccv.  j?ut  those  words  .which  end  with  double  /,  and  take  7iess,  Icsa, 
(7,  ur  fill,  after  them,  generally  omit  one  I ;  as  fulness,  skilless, 
f::lly,  skilful,  i^c.j 

RULE    VI I.  SI 

JSJ'esSt  lesSf  iy,  and/w/j  added  to  wo/ds  ending  with  silent  e,  ^^^fl 


ORTHOGRAPHY  2l> 

not  cut  it  of!*:  as,  paleness,  guileless,  closely,  peaceful :  except  iu 
a  few  words;  as,  duly,  truly,  awful. 
RULE  viir. 

Menty  added  to  words  ending  with  silent  c,  generally  preserve^ 
the  e  from  elision  ,  as,  abatement,  chastisement,  incitement,  &c. 
The  words  judgment,  abridgment,  acknowledgment,  are  devia- 
tions from  the  rule. 

Like  other  terminations,  ?ncn^  changes!/ into  I,  when  preceded  by 
a  consonant;  as,  accompany,  accompaniment ;  merry,  merriment. 

RULE     IX. 

Able  and  itZe,  when  incorporated  into  words  ending  with  silent «, 
almost  always  cut  it  off:  as,  blame,  blaniable  ;  cure,  curable  ; 
sense,  sensible,  &c. :  but  if  c  or  g-  soft  comes  before  e  in  the  origi- 
nal word,  the  e  is  then  preserved  in  words  compounded  with 
able  ;  as,  change,  changeable  ;  peace,  peaceable,  &c. 

RULE    X. 

When  ing  or  ish  is  added  to  words  ending  with  silent  c,  the  e 
IS  almost  universally  omitted :  as,  place,  placing  ;  lodge,  lodging  , 
slave,  slavish  ;  prude,  prudish. 

RULE     XI. 

Words  taken  into  composition,  often  drop  those  letters  which 
were  superfluous  in  the  simple  words  :  as,  handful,  dunghil,  with- 
al, also,  chilblain,  foreteL 

The  orthography  of  a  great  number  of  English  words  is  far  from 
oeing  uniform,  even  amongst  writers  of  distinction.  Thus,  ho- 
nour and  honor,  inquire  and  enquire,  negotiate  and  negociate,  con- 
trol and  controul,  expense  and  expence,  allege  and  alledge,  surprise 
and  surpi'ize,  complete  and  compleat,  connexion  and  connection^ 
abridgment  and  abridgement,  and  many  other  orthographical  va-  . 
nations,  are  to  be  met  with  in  the  best  modern  publications. 
Some  authority  for  deciding  differences  of  this  nature,  appears 
to  be  necessary:  and  where  can  we  find  one  of  equal  pretensions 
with  Dr.  Johnson's  Dictionary  ?  though  a  few  of  his  decisions  do 
not  appear  to  be  warranted  by  the  principles  of  etymology  and 
analogy,  the  stable  foundations  of  his  improvements. — "As  the 
weight  of  truth  and  reason  (says  Nares  in  his  "  Elements  of  Orthoe- 
py") is  irresistible.  Dr.  Johnson's  Dictionary  has  nearly  fixed  the) 
external  form  of  our  language.  Indeed,  so  convenient  is  it  to  have 
one  acknowledged  standard  to  recur  to ;  so  much  preferable,  in 
matters  of  this  nature,  is  a  trifling  degree  of  irregularity,  to  a 
continual  change,  and  fruitless  pursuit  of  unattainable  perfection  ; 
thnt  it  is  earnestly  to  be  hoped,  that  no  author  will  henceforth, 
on  light  grounds,  be  tempted  to  innovate." 

This  Dictionary,  hovyever,  contains  some  orthographical  in- 
consistencies, which  ought  to  be  rectified  :  such  as,  immovable^ 
moveable,  chastely  chastness,  feriileness  fertily,  sliness  slyly,  fear 
lessly  fearlesness^  needlessness  needlesly.  If  these,  and  similar  ir 
regularities,  were  corrected  by  spelling  the  words  analogically, 
according  to  the  first  word  in  each  part  of  the  series,  and  agreea- 
bly to  the  general- rules' of  spelhng,  the  Dictionary  would  doubt- 
less, in  these  respects,  be  improved. 

C  2 


PART  11. 
ETYMOLOGY. 


CHAPTER  I. 

A  General  View  of  the  Parts  of  Speech. 

THE  second  part  of  grammar  is  etymology,  which 
of  the  different  sorts  of  words,  their  various  modifications, 
and  their  derivation. 

There  are,  in  Enghsh,  nine  sorts  of  words,  or,  as  they  are 
commonly  called,  parts  of  speech  ;  namely,  the  article, 
the  substantive  or  noun,  the  ad/ective,  the  pronoun, 
the  verb,  the  adverb,  the  preposition,  the  conjunction, 
and  the  interjection. 

1  An  Article  is  a  word  prefixed  to  substantives,  to  point 
them  out,  and  to  show  how  far  their  signification  extends  : 
as,  a  garden,  an  eagle,  the  woman. 

2  A  Substantive  or  noun  is  the  name  of  any  thing  that 
exists,  or  of  which  we  have  any  notion  :  as,  London,  man, 
virtue, 

A  Substantive  may,  in  general,  be  distinguished  by  its  taking 
an  article  before  it,  or  by  its  making  sense  of  itself:  as,  a  book, 
the  sun,  an  apple ;  temperance,  industry,  chastity. 

3  An  Adjective  is  a  word  added  to  a  substantive,  to  ex- 
press its  quality :  as,  "  An  industrious  man  ;  a  virtuous  wo- 
man." 

An  Adjective  may  be  known  by  its  making  sense  with  the  ad- 
dition of  the  word  thing :  as,  a  good  thing  ;  a  had  thing  :  or  of 
any  particular  substantive  ;  as,  a  sweet  apple,  a  pleasant  prospect, 
a  lively  boy. 

4  A  Pronoun  is  a  word  used  instead  of  a  noun,  to  avoid 
the  too  frequent  repetition  of  the  same  word :  as,  "  The 
man  is  happy  ;  he  is  benevolent ;  he  is  useful." 

5  A  Verb  is  as  word  which  signifies  to  be,  to  do,  or  to 
SUFFER  :  as,  "  I  am  ;  I  rule^  I  am  ruled.'' 

A  Verb  may  generally  be  distinguished,  by  its  making  sense 
with  any  of  the  personal  pronouns,  or  the  word  to  before  it :  as, 
I  wdlky  he  plays,  they  write  ;  or,  to  walk,  to  play,  to  write. 

6  An  Adverb  is  a  part  of  speech  joined  to  a  verb,  an 
adjective,  and  sometimes  to  another  adverb,  to  express  some 
quality  or  circumstance  respecting  it :  as,  "  He  reads  well ; 
a  truly  good  man ;  he  writes  very  correctly.'*  « 


ETYMOLOGY.  3 

An  Adverb  may  be  generally  k?Town,  by  its  answering  to  the 
question,  How?  how  niiicli  ?  when?  or  wJiere  ?  as,  in  the  phrase 
"  He  reads  co7Tec%,"  the  answer  to  the  question,  How  does  he 
read  ?  is,  correctly, 

7  Prepositions  serve  to  connect  words  with  one  another, 
and  to  show  the  relation  between  them:  as,  "  He  wt  nt from 
London  to  York  ;"  "she  is  above  disguise;"  "  they  nre  sup* 
ported  63/  industry." 

A  Preposition  may  be  known  by  its  admitting  after  it  a  person- 
al pronoun,  in  the  objective  case;  as,  with, for,  to,  &c.  w  11  allow 
the  objective  case  after  them  ;  with  him,  for  her,  to  them,  &c. 

8  A  Conjunction  fs  a  part  of  speech  that  is  chiefly  used 
to  connect  sentences  ;  so  as,  out  of  two  or  more  sentences, 
to  make  but  one  :  it  sometimes  connects  only  words  :  as, 
"  Thou  and  he  are  happy,  because  you  are  good."  "  Two 
and  three  are  five." 

9  Interjections  are  words  thrown  in  between  the  parts 
of  a  sentence,  to  express  the  passions  or  emotions  of  the 
speaker:  as,  "  O  virtue  !  how  amiable  thou  art !" 

The  observations  which  have  been  made,  to  aid  learners  in 
distinguishing  the  parts  of  speech  from  one  another,  may  afford 
them  some  small  assistance ;  but  it  will  certainly  be  much  more 
instructive,  to  distinguish  them  by  the  definitions,  and  an  accu- 
rate knowledge  of  their  nature. 

In  the  following  passage,  all  the  parts  of  speech  are  exemplified , 
1  272       5    12  3         72         85 

The  power  of  speech  is   a  faculty  peculiar  to  man  ;  and  waa^ 
57474  3  2  71  38 

bestowed  on  him  by  his  beneficent  Creator,  for  the  greatest  and 

6  3  2896654         547 

most  excellent  uses ;  but  alas !  how  often  do  we  pervert   it  to 

13       7  2 

the  worst  of  purposes ! 

In  the  foregoing  sentence,  the  words  the,  a,  are  articles;  power, 
speech,  faculty,  man,  Creator  .ises, purposes,  are  substantives  ;  pe- 
culiar, beneficent, greatest,  excellent,  worst,  are  adjectives;  him,  his, 
we,  it,  are  pronouns  ;  is,  was,  bestowed,  do,  pervert,  are  verbs  ; 
most  how,  often,  are  adverbs  ;  of  to,  on,  by,  for,  are  prepositions  ; 
and,  but,  are  conjunctions  ;  and  alas  is  an  interjection. 

The  number  of  the  different  sorts  of  words,  or  of  the  parts  of 
speech,  has  been  variously  reckoned  by  different  grarnmarians. 
Some  hdve  enumerated  ten,  making  the  participle  a  distinct  part ; 
some  eight,  excluding  the  participle,  and  ranking  the  adjective 
under  the  noun  ;  some  four,  nnd  others  only  two,  (the  noun  and 
the  verb,)  supposing  the  res  ;o  be  contained  in  the  parts  of  their 
division.    We  have  follow€    those  authors,  who  appear  to  »«r^ 


32  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

given  them  the  most  natural  and  intelligible  distribuH  jn.  Some 
remarks  on  the  division  made  by  the  learned  Uorne  Tooke,  are 
contained  in  the  first  section  of  the  eleventh  chapter  of  etymology. 
The  interjection,  indeed,  seems  scarcely  w^orthy  of  being  con- 
sidered as  a  part  of  artificial  language  or  speech,  being  rather  a 
branch  of  that  natural  language,  which  we  possess  in  common 
with  the  brute  creation,  and  by  which  v/e  express  the  sudden 
emotions  and  passions  that  actuate  our  frame.  But,  as  it  is  used 
n  written  as  well  as  oral  language,  it  may,  in  some  measure,  hv 
deemed  a  part  of  speech.  It  is  with  us,  a  virtual  sentence,  in 
which  the  noun  and  verb  are  concealed  under  an  imperfect  oi 
indigested  word. — See  this  Chajpter^  in  the  octavo  Grammar, 

CHAPTER  n. 
OF  THE  ARTICLES. 

AN  ARTICLE  is  a  word  prefixed  to  substantives  to  point 
them  out,  and  to  show  how  far  their  signification  extends  ; 
as,  a  garden,  an  eagle,  the  woman. 

In  Enghsh,  there  are  hut  two  articles,  a  and  the :  a  be- 
comes an  before  a  vowel,*  and  before  a  silent  h ;  as,  an 
acorn,  an  hour.  But  if  the  h  be  sounded,  the  a  only  is  to 
be  used  ;  as,  a  hand,  a  heart,  a  highway. 

The  inattention  of  writers  and  printers  to  this  necessary  dis- 
tinction, has  occasioned  the  frequent  use  of  an  before  h,  when 
is  to  be  pronounced  ;  and  this  circumstance,  more  than  any  other 
has  probably  contributed  to  that  indistinct  utterance,  or  total 
omission,  of  the  sound  signified  by  this  letter,  which  very  often 
occurs  amongst  readers  and  speakers.  An  horse,  an  husband, 
an  herald,  an  heathen,  and  many  similar  associations,  are  fre- 
quently to  be  found  in  works  of  taste  and  merit.  To  remedy  this 
evil,  readers  should  be  taught  to  omit,  in  all  similar  cases,  the 
sound  of  the  n,  and  to  give  the  h  its  full  pronunciation. 

A  or  an  is  styled  the  indefinite  article :  it  is  used  in  a  vague 
sense,  to  point  out  one  single  thing  of  the  kind,  in  other 
respects  indeterminate  :  as,  "  Give  me  a  book;"  /*  Bring 
me  an  apple." 

The  is  called  the  definite  article ;  because  it  ascertains 
what  particular  thing  or  things  are  meant :  as,  '*  Give  me 
the  book ;"  "  Bring  me  the  apples  ;"  meaning  some  book, 
or  apples,  referred  to. 

A  substantive  without  any  article  to  limit  it,  is  generally 
taken  in  its  widest  sense  :  as,  "  A  candid  temper  is  proper 
for  man  ;"  that  is,.for  all  mankind. 

*  A  instead  of  an  is  now  used  before  words  beginning  with  u  long.  Seo  pag« 
82,  letter  U,    It  Is  also  used  before  one,'  as,  many  a  one. 


ETYMOLOGY.  33 

The  peculiar  use  and  importance  of  the  articles  will  be  seen  in 
the  following  examples;  the  son  of  a  king — the  son  of  the  i^ing 
— a  son  of  the  king."  Each  of  thcseithree  phrases  has  an  entire- 
ly different  meaning,  through  the  different  apphcation  of  the  arti- 
cles a  and  the, 

"  T]io<i  art  a  man,"  is  a  very  general  and  harmless  position ; 
hut,  "  Thou  art  the  man,"  (as  Nathan  said  to  David,)  is  an  asser- 
tion capable  of  striking  terror  and  remorse  into  the  heart. 

The  article  is  omitted  before  nouns  that  imply  the  different  vir- 
tues, vices,  passions,  qualities,  sciences,  arts,  metals,  herbs,  &c. , 
as,  "  prudence  is  commendable  ;  falsehood  is  odious ;  anger  ouglu 
Co  be  avoided  ;"  &;c.  It  is  not  prefixed  to  a  proper  name  ;  at, 
•^Alexander,"  (because  that  of  itself  denotes  a  determinate  indi- 
vidual or  particular  thing,)  except  for  the  sake  of  distinguishing 
A  particular  family  :  as,  *'  He  is  a  Howard,  or  of  the  family  of  the 
Howards;"  or  by  way  of  eminence:  as,  "every  man  is  not  a 
Newton  ;"  **  He  has  the  courage  of  a?i  Achilles:"  or  when  some 
noun  is  understood  ;  "  We  sailed  down  the  (river)  Thames,  in  tht 
(tship)  Britannia." 

When  an  adj^ctife  is  used  with  the  noun  to  which  the  article 
relates,  it  is  j^laced  between  the  article  and  the  noun  ;  as,  "  a 
good  man,"  "  an  agreeable  woman,"  "  the  hest  friend."  On  some 
occasions,  however,  the  adjective  precedes  a  or  an  ,^s,  ''such  a 
fiiiame,"  *^  as  great  a  man  as  Alexander,"  "  too  careless  an  author." 
The  indefinite  article  can  be  joined  to  substantives  in  the  singu- 
lar number  only  ;  the  definite  article  may  be  joined  also  to  plurals. 
But  there  appears  to  be  a  remarkable  exception  to  this  rule,  in 
the  use  of  the  adjectives  few  and  many^  (the  latter  chiefly  with 
the  word  great  before  it,)  which,  though  joined  wjth  plural  sub- 
stantives, yet  admit  of  the  singular  article  a :  as,  a  few  men ;  a 
great  many  men. 

The  reason  of  it  is  manifest,  from  the  effect  which  the  article 
Las  in  these  phrases  ;  it  means  9.  small  or  great  number  collec- 
tively taken,  and  therefore  gives  the  idea  of  a  whole,  that  is,  of 
unity.  Thus  likewise,  a  dozen,  a  score,  a  hundred,  or  a  thou- 
sand, is  one  v/hole  number,  an  aggregate  of  many  collectively 
taken  ;  and  therefore  still  retains  the  article  a,  though  joined  as 
an  adjective  to  a  plural  substantive  ;  as,  a  hundred  years,  &c. 

The  iiidefinite  article  is  sometimes  placed  between  the  adjec- 
tive many,  and  a  singular  noun:  as, 

"Full  inany  a  gem  of  purest  ray  serene, 

"  The  dark  tinfathom'd  caves  of  ocean  bear: 
"  Full  many  afiow^r  is  born  to  blush  unseen, 
"  And  waste  its  sweetness  on  the  desert  air." 
In  these  lines,  the  phrases,  ?na7z?/  a  gem  and  many  afloioh'^  refer  to 
many  gems  and  many  flowers ,  separately,  not  collectively  consi- 
dered. 

The  definite  article  the  is  frequently  applied  to  adverbs  in  the 
comparative  and  superlative  degree  ;  and  its  effect  is,  to  mark  the 
degree  the  more  strongly,  and  to  define  it  the  more  precisely  :  aj> 


34  ENGLISH   GRAMxMAR. 

"  The  more  I  examine  it,  the  better  I  like  iL     I  like  this  the  least 
of  any.'*     See  this  Chapter,  in  the  Octavo  Grammar. 

CHAPTER   III. 

OF  SUBSTAJVTIFES. 

SECTION  I.     Of  Substantives  in  general 

A  SUBSTANTIVE  or  Noun  is  the  name  of  any  thing 
that  exists,  or  of  which  we  have  any  notion  :  as,  London^ 
mariy  virtue. 

Substantives  are  either  proper  or  common. 

Proper  names  or  substantives,  are  the  names  appropri- 
ated to  individuals  :  as,  George,  London,  Thames. 

Common  names  or  substantives,  stand  for  kinds  contain- 
ing many  sorts,  or  for  sorts  containing  many  individuals 
under  them  ;  as,  animal,  man,  tree,  &c. 

When  proper  names  have  an  article  annexed  to  them, 
they  are  used  as  common  names  :  as,  "  rle  is  the  Cicero  oi 
his  age ;  he  is  reading  the  lives  of  the  Twelve  Ccesars" 

Commo^^ames  may  also  be  used  to  signify  individuals,  by- 
the  addition  of  articles  or  pronouns :  as,  "  The  boy  is  studi- 
ous ;  that  girl  is  discreet."* 

To  substantives  belong  gender,  number,  and  case ;  and 
they  are  all  of  the  third  person  when  spoken  of,  and  of 
the  second  when  spoken  to :  as,  "  Blessings  attend  us  on 
every  side  ;  be  grateful,  children  of  men !"  that  is,  ye  chil 
dren  of  men. 

SECTION  11.^    Of  Gender 

GENDER  is  the  distinction  of  nouns,  with  regard  to  sex. 
There  are  three  genders,  the  masculine,  the  feminine,  and 

NEUTER. 

The  Masculine  Gender  denotes  animals  of  the  male  kind  . 
as,  a  man,  a  horse,  a  bull. 

The  Feminine  Gender  signifies  animals  of  the  female 
kind  :  as,  a  woman,  a  duck,  a  hen. 

The  Neuter  Gender  denotes  objects  which  are  neither 
males  nor  females  :  as,  a  field,  a  house,  a  garden. 

Some  substantives,  naturally  neuter,  are,  by  a  figure  of 
speech,  converted  into  the  masculine  or  feminine  gender  : 

♦  Nouns  may  also  be  divided  into  the  following  classes  :  Collective  nouns,  oi 
nouns  of  multitude  ;  as,  the  people,  the  parliament,  the  army:  Abstract  nouns, 
or  the  names  of  qualities  ahstmcred  from  then  substances;  as,  knowledge,  good 
oers,  whiteness  i  Verbal  or particij>ial  nouns  \  as,  beginning,  reading,  writing. 


ETYMOLOGY. 

as,  when  we  saj  of  llie  sun,  he  is  setting  ;  and  of  a  ship,  stit 
sails  well. 

Figuratively,  in  the  English  tongue,  we  commonly  give  the 
niascuhne  gender  tc  nouns  which  are  conspicuous  for  the  attri- 
butes of  imparting  or  communicating,  and  which  are  by  nature 
strong  and  efficacious.  Those,  again,  are  made  feminine,  whicU 
are  consi>icuous  for  the  attributes  of  containing  or  bringing  forth, 
or  which  are  pecuharly  beautiful  or  amiable.  Upon  these  prin- 
ciples, the  sun  is  said  to  be  masculine  ;  and  the  moon,  being  the 
receptacle  of  the  sun's  light,  to  be  feminine.  The  earth  is  gene- 
rally feminine.  A  ship,  a  country,  a  city,  &c.  are  likewise  made 
femmine,  being  receivers  or  containers.  Time  is  always  mascu- 
line, on  account  of  its  mighty  efficacy.  Virtue  is  feminine  from 
its  beauty,  and  its  being  the  object  of  love.  Fortune  and  the 
church  are  generally  put  in  the  feminine  gender. 

The  English  language  has  three  methods  of  distinguishing  the 
&€X,  viz. 

1.  By  different  words:  as, 


Male. 

Female. 

Male. 

Female. 

Bachelor. 

Waid. 

Husband. 

Wife. 

Hoar. 

Sow, 

Kinsf, 

Queen, 

J^oy. 

Girl. 

Lad: 

Lass. 

Brother. 

Sister. 

Lord. 

Lady. 

Buck. 

Doe. 

Man. 

Woman. 

Bull. 

Cow. 

Master. 

Mistress. 

Bullock  or 

;|  Heifer. 

Milter. 

Spawner. 

Steer. 

Nephew. 

Niece. 

Cock. 

Hen. 

Ram. 

Ewe. 

Dog. 

Bitch. 

Singer. 

^  Songstress  or 
i'  Singer. 

Drake. 

Duck. 

liarl. 

Countess. 

Sloven. 

Slut. 

Father. 

Mother. 

Son. 

Daughter. 

Friar. 

Nun. 

Stag. 

Hind. 

Gander 

Goose. 

Uncle. 

Aunt. 

Hart. 

Roe. 

Wizard. 

Witch. 

Horse. 

Mare. 

2.  By  a  difference  of  termination:  as, 

Mal«. 

Female. 

Male. 

Female 

Abbot. 

Abbess. 

Landgrave. 

Landgravine. 

Actor. 

Actress. 

Lion. 

Lioness. 

Adminptiratoi 

.    Administratri^j 

.,  Marquis, 

Marchioness. 

Adulterer. 

Adultress. 

Master. 

Mistress. 

Ambassador. 

Ambassadress. 

Mayor. 

Mayoress. 

Arbiter. 

Arbitress. 

Patron. 

Patroness. 

Baron. 

Baroness 

Peer. 

Peeress. 

Bridegroom. 

Bride. 

Poet. 

Poetess. 

Benefactor. 

Benefactress. 

Priest. 

Priestess. 

Caterer. 

Cateress. 

Prince. 

Princess. 

Chanter. 

Chantress. 

Prior. 

Prioress. 

ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 


Male. 

Female. 

Male. 

Female 

Conductor 

Conductress. 

Prophet. 

ProphetCF*! 

Count. 

Countess. 

Protector. 

Protectress. 

Deacon. 

Deaconess. 

Shepherd. 

Shepherdess. 

Duke. 

Duchess. 

Songster. 

Songstress. 

Elector. 

Electress. 

Sorcerer. 

Sorceress. 

Emperor. 

Empress. 

Sultan. 

J  Sultaness,  or 
\  Sultana. 

Enchanter. 

Enchantress. 

Executor. 

Executrix. 

Tiger. 

Tigress. 

Governor. 

Governess. 

Traitor. 

Traitress. 

Heir. 

Heiress. 

Tutor. 

Tutoress. 

Hero. 

Heroine. 

Viscount. 

Viscountess. 

Hunter. 

Huntre.ss. 

Votary. 

Votaress. 

Host. 

Hostess. 

Widower. 

Widow. 

Jew. 

Jewess. 

1 

i 


3.  By  a  ncun,  pronoun,  or  adjective,  hem^  prefixed  to  the  sub 
fitantive:   as, 

A  cock-sparrow.  A  hen-sparrow. 

A  man-servant.  A  maid-servant. 

A  he-goat.  A  she-goat. 

A  he-hear.  A  she-hear. 

A  male  child.  A  female  child. 

Male  descendants.  Female  descendants 

It  sometimes  happens,  that  the  same  noun  is  either  masculine 
or  feminine.  The  words  pareni.  child,  cousin,  friend,  iieif^kbour, 
servant,  and  several  others,  are  used  indifferently  for  males  or 
females. 

Nouns  with  variahle  terminations  contrihute  to  conciseness  and 
perspicuity  of  expression.  We  have  only  a  sufficient  number  of 
them  to  make  us  feel  our  want ;  for  when  we  say  of  a  woman, 
si»e  is  a  philosopher,  an  astronomer,  a  builder,  a  weaver,  we  per- 
ceive an  im])ropriety  in  the  termination,  which  we  cannot  avoid, 
but  we  can  say,  that  she  is  a  botanist,  a  student,  a  witness,  a 
scholar,  an  or])han,  a  companion,  because  these  terminations 
have  not  annexed  to  them  the  notion  of  sex. 

SECTION  III.     OfJVumber, 

NUMBER  is  the  consideration  of  an  object,  as  one  or 

ore. 

SuTjstantivcs  are  of  two  numbers,  the  singular  and  the 
plural. 

The  singular  number  expresses  but  one  object ;  ^s,  a 
cluair,  a  table. 

The  plural  number  signifies  more  objects  than  one  ;«as, 
chairs,  tables. 

boras  liouns,  from  the  nature  of  the  things  which  they 
•express,  iie  used  only  in  the  singular  form;   as,  wheat, 


ETVMOLO<JY.  37 

pitch,  gold,  sloth,  pride,  &c. ;  others,  only  in  the  plural  form; 
as, bellows,  scissors,  lungs,  riches,  &c. 

Some  words  arc  the  same  in  both  numbers ;  as,  Jeer, 
fiheep,  swine,  &;c. 

The  plural  number  of  nouns  is  generally  formed  by  add- 
ing s  to  the  singular :  as,  dove,  doves  ;  face,  faces  ;  thought, 
thoughts.  But  when  the  substantive  singular  ends  in  x, 
ch  soft,  sh,  ss,  or  s,  we  add  es  in  the  plural :  as,  box,  boxes  ; 
church,  churches  ;  lash,  lashes  ;  kiss,  kisses ;  rebus,  rebusses. 
tf  the  singular  ends  in  ch  hard,  the  plural  is  formed  by  ad- 
ding 5;  as,  monarch,  monarchs  ;  distich,  distichs. 

Nouns  which  end  in  0,  have  sometimes  es,  added  to  the  plural ; 
as,  cargo,  echo,  hero,  negro,  manifesto,  potato, volcano,  wo:  and 
sometinies  only  s ;  as,  fbho,  nuncio,  punctilio,  seraglio. 

Nouns  ending  in  /,  or/e,  are  rendered  plural  by  the  change  of 
those  terminations  into  vts :  as,  loaf,  loaves  ;  half,  halves  ;  wife, 
wives :  excep.t  grief,  relief,  reproof,  and  several  others,  whict 
form  the  plural  by  the  addition  of  5.  Those  which  end  in^,  have 
the  regular  })hiral :  as,  ruff,  ruffs  ;  except,  staff,  staves. 

Nouns  which  have  y  in  the  singular,  with  no  other  vowel  in 
!he  same  syllable,  cliiinge  it  into  ies  in  the  plural:  as,  beauty, 
beauties  ;  fly.  Hies.  But  the  1/  is  not  changed,  when  there  is  ano- 
ther vowel  in  the  syllable  :  as,  key,  keys;  delay,  delays;  attor** 
iiey,  attorneys. 

Some  nouns  become  plural  by  changing  the  a  of  the  singuleur 
into  e:  as,  man,  men;  woman,  women;  alderman,  aldermen. 
The  words,  ox  and  child,  form  oxen  and  children  ;  brother, 
makes  either  brothers,  or  brethren.  Sometimes  the  diphthong 
00  is  changed  into  ee  in  the  plural;  as,  foot,  feet;  goose,  geese; 
tooth,  teeth.  Louse  and  mouse  make  lice  and  mice.  Penny 
uudces  pence,  or  pennies,  when  the  coin  is  meant :  die,  dice  (for 
play  ;)  die,  dies  (for  coining.) 

It  is  agreealile  to  analogy,  and  the  practice  of  the  generality  of 
correct  writers,  to  construe  the  following  words  as  plural  nouns  ; 
pains,  riches,  alms:  and  also,  mathematics,  metaphysics, politics^ 
ethics,  optics,  pneumatics,  with  other  similar  names  of  sciences. 

Dr.  Johnson  says  that  the  adjective  much  is  sometimes  a  tenn 
of  number,  as  well  as  of  quantity.  This  may  account  for  the  in- 
stances we  meet  with  of  its  associating  with  pains  as  a  plural 
noun :  as,  "  much  pains."  The  connexion,  however,  is  not  to  be 
recommended. 

The  word  iiews  is  now  almost  universally  considered  as  be- 
longing to  the  singular  number. 

The  noun  means  is  used  both  in  the  singular  and  the  plural 
number. 

The  following  words,  which  have  been  adopted  from  the  He- 
Drew,  Greek,  and  Latin  languages,  are  thus  distinguished,  with 
respect  to  number. 


S8 


ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 


Singular. 

Fiuial. 

Singular. 

Plural       A 

Cherub. 

Cherubim. 

Datum. 

Data.               j 

Seraph. 

Seraphim. 

Effluvium. 

Effluvia. 

Antithesis. 

Antitheses, 

Encomium. 

J  Encomia,  or 
\  Encomiums.    ^ 

Automaton. 

Automata. 

Basis, 

Bases. 

EiTatum. 

Errata. 

Crisis. 

Crises. 

Genius 

Genii.^ 

Criterion. 

Criteria. 

Genus. 

Genera.             , 

Direresis. 
p]nipsis. 

Diasreses. 
EHipses. 

Index. 

\  Indices  or 
I  Indexes.f 

Emphasis. 

Emphases. 

Lamina. 

Laminae.            j 

Hypothesis. 

Hypotheses. 

Medium. 

Media.              i 

MetaiT?orpi\o»is.  Metamorphoses.Magus. 

Magi.                i 

Phoenomenon 

.     Phaenomena.  - 

Memoran- 

\ 1  Memoranda  or 
i  Memorandums. 

Appendix. 

^  Appendices  or 
\  Appendixes. 

dum. 

Radius. 

Radii. 

Arcanum. 

Arcana. 

Stameii. 

Stamina. 

Axis. 

Axes. 

Stratum. 

Strata. 

Calx. 

Calces. 

Vortex. 

Vortices, 

Some  words,  derived  from  the  learned  languages,  are  confined 
to  the  plural  number:  as,  antipodes,  credenda,  literati,  minutiiB. 

The  following  nouns  being,  in  Latin,  both  singular  and  plural, 
are  used  in  the  same  manner  when  adopted  into  our  tongue: 
hiatus,  apparatus,  series,  species. 

SECTION  IV.     Of  Case. 

In  English,  substantives  have  three  cases,  the  nominative, 
the  possessive,  and  the  objective.^ 

The  nominative  case  simply  expresses  the  name  of  a 
thins:,  or  the  subject  of  the  verb :  as,  "  The  boy  plays ;" 
"■  The  girls  learn." 

The  possessive  case  expresses  the  relation  of  property  or 
possession ;  and  has  an  apostrophe  with  the  letter  s  coming 
after  it :  as,  "  The  scholar's  duty  ;"  "  My  father's  house." 

When  the  plural  ends  in  s,  the  other  s  is  omitted,  but  the 
apostrophe  is  retained:  as,  "on  eagles'  wings;"  "The 
drapers'  company.'* 

Sometimes,  also,  when  the  singular  terminates  in  ss,  thedl 
apostrophic  s  is  not  added :  as,  "  For  goodness'  sake  ;*  ^1 
"  For  righteousness'  sake." 

The  objective  case  expresses  the  object  of  an  action,  oroij 
a  relation ;  and  generally  follows  a  verb  active,  or  a  prepo^ 
sition  :  as,  "  John  assists  Charles;"  "  They  live  in  London. 

*  Genii,  when  denoting  atrial  spirits  :  Geniuses,  when  signifying  pRrsons  of  geniu 
f  Indexes,  when  it  signifies  pointers,  or  Tables  of  coatents:  Indices^  wUen  re| 

ferriiigto  Algebraic  quantities. 

t  The  poi>s.csbive  is  sometimes  called  tlic  genitive  case  ;  and  the  o])jeclive,  th 

accusaij'.^e. 


ETYMOLOGY. 


English  substantives  are  declined  in  the  following  manner : 


Kominativc  Case. 
Possessive  Vase. 
Objective  Case. 
Jfoniinaiive  Case. 
Possessive  Case. 
Objective  Case. 


Singular.  Plural. 

A  mother.  Mothers. 

A  mother's.  Mothers', 

A  mother.  Mothers. 

The  man.  The  men. 

"J'he  man's.  The  men's. 

The  man.  The  men, 

Tlie  English  language,  to  express  different  connexjoiLs  and  re- 
lations of  one  thing  to  another,  uses,  for  the  most  part,  preposi- 
tions. The  Greek  and  Latin  among  the  ancient,  and  some  too 
among  the  modern  languages,  as  the  Gorman,  vary  the  termina- 
tion or  endmg  of  the  substantive,  to  answer  ihe  same  purpose; 
an  example  of  which,  in  the  Latin,  is  inserted,  as  explanatory  of 
the  nature  and  use  of  cases,  viz. 

Suigiilar. 
♦Vo  min  at  ive*  D  o  yi  i  n  u  s, 

Genitive.  D  o  ]\i  i  m  , 

Dative.  Domino, 

Accusative.  D  o  m  i  n  u  xU, 

Vocative,  1)  o  bh  n  e  , 

Mlative^  Do  Ml. NO, 

PluiaL 
JsTominative.  Domini, 

Genitive.  D  o  ai  i  n  o  R  u  m  , 

Dative,  Do  min  is, 

Accusative.  Domino  s, 

Vocative.  Domini, 

^  Ablative.  D  o  m  i  n  i  s. 

Some  writers  think,  that  the  relations  signified  by  the  addition 
of  articles  and  prepositions  to  the  noun,  may  properly  be  de-, 
nomiivated  cases,  in  English  ;  and  that,  on  this  i)rinciple,  there 
are,  in  our  language,  as  many  cases  as  in  tlie  Latin  tongue.'  But 
to  this  mode  of  forming  cases  for  our  substantives,  there  are  strong 
objections.  It  would,  indeed,  be  a  formal  and  useless  arrange  • 
ment  of  nouns,  articles,  and  prepositions.  If  an  arrangement  of 
this  nature  were  to  be  <xjnsidered  as  consntuting  cases,  the  Eng- 
lish language  would  have  a  much  greater  number  of  them  than 
the  Greek  and  Latin  tongues:  for,  as  every  preposition  has  its 
distinct  meaning  and  effect,  every  combination  of  a  preposition  • 
aiid  article  with  the  noun  would  form  a  different  relation,  and 
would  constitute  a  distinct  case. — This  would  encumber  our  lan- 
guage with  many  new  terms,  and  a  heavy  and  useless  load  of 
distinctions.* 

*  If  cases  are  to  be  distinguished  by  tlie  different  significations  of  the  noun,  or 
by  the  different  relations  it  may  bear  to  the  c;overning  word,  then  we  have  in  our 
language  as  many  casos  almost,  as  tliere  are  prepositions :  and  above  a  mau, 
beneath  a  man,  beyond  a  miin,  round  about  a  man,  within  a  man,  without  a 
W5l»i  &c.  shall  be  eases,  as  well  as,  of  a  man,  to  a  man,  au'd  with  a  man." 

/>-  BeaiiU, 


A  Lord. 

Lord^'s^  of  a  Lord- 
To  a  Lor(L 
A  Lord^ 
O  Lord.. 
By  a  Lord, 

Lords, 

Lords',  of  Lords, 

To  Lords, 

Lords, 

O  Lords. 

By  Lords. 


40  '  ENGLISH   GRAMxMAR. 

On  tlie  principle  of  nnjtating  other  languages  in  names  fn^^ 
forms,  without  a  correspondence  in  nature  anil  idiom,  we  might 
adopt  a  number  of  declensions,  as  well  as  a  variety  of  cases,  for 
English  substantives.  Thus,  live  or  six  declensions,  distinguished 
according  to  the  various  modes  of  forming  the  plural  of  substan 
tives,  with  at  least  half  a  dozen  cases  to  each  declension,  would 
furnish  a  complete  arrangement  of  English  nouns,  in  all  their 
trappings.  See  on  this  subject,  the  fifth  and  tmiih  seciion.t  of  thr 
sixth  chapter  of  etymology. 

But  though  this  variety  of  casesdoes  not  at  all  correspond  with 
the  idiom  of  our  language,  there  seems  to  be  great  propriety  ii\ 
admitting  a  case  in  English  substantives,  which  shall  serve  to  de- 
note the  objects  of  active  verbs  and  of  prepositions;  and  which  is, 
therefore,  properly  termed  the  objective  case.  The  general  idea 
of  case  doubtless  has  a  reference  to  the  termination  of  the  nonn  : 
but  there  are  many  instances,  both  in  Greek  and  Latin,  in  which 
the  nominative  and  accusative  cases  have  precisely  the  same 
form,  and  are  distinguished  only  by  the  relation  they  bear  to 
other  words  in  the  sentence.  We  are  therefore  warranted,  by 
analogy,  in  applying  this  principle  to  our  own  language,  as  far  as 
jtility,  and  the  idiom  of  it,  will  admit.  Now  it  is  obvious,  that  in 
English,  a  noun  governed  by  an  active  verb,  or  a  preposition,  is 
very  differently  circumstanced,  from  a  noun  in  the  nominative, 
or  in  the  possessive  case  ;  and  that  a  comprehensive  case,  cor- 
respondent to  that  difference,  must  be  useful  and  proper.  The 
business  of  parsing,  and  of  showing  the  connexion  and  depend- 
ence of  words,  will  be  most  conveniently  accomplished,  by  the 
adoption  of  such  a  case  ;  and  the  irregularity  of  having  our  nouns 
sometimes  placed  in  a  situation,  in  which  they  cannot  be  said  to 
be  in  any  case  at  all,  will  be  avoided. 

The  author  of  this  work  long  doubted  the  propriety  of  assign 
ing  to  English  substantives  an  objective  case:  but  a  renewed, 
critical  examination  of  the  subject,  an  examination  to  which  he 
was  prompted  by  the  extensive  and  increasing  demand  for  the 
grammar,  has  produced  in  his  mind  a  full  persuasion,  that  th» 
nouns  of  our  language  are  entitled  to  this  comprehensive  objce 
tive  case. 


When  the  thing  to  which  another  is  said  to  belong,  is  express 
ed  by  a  circumlocution,  or  by  many  terms,  the  sign  of  the  posses 
sive  case  is  commonly  added  to  the  last  term :  as,  "  The  king  of 
Great  Britain's  dominions." 

Sometimes,  though  rarely,  two  nouns  in  the  possessive  oaf*e 
immediately  succeed  each  other,  in  the  following  form:  "My 
friend's  wife's  sister  ;"  a  sense  which  would  be  better  expressed 
by  saying,  "  the  sister  of  my  friend's  wife  ;"  or,  "  my  friend's  si;? 
ter-in-law."  Some  grammarians  say,  that  in  each  of  the  follow 
ing  phrases,  viz.  "A  book  of  my  brother's,"  '*  A  servant  of  tho 
queen's,"  "A  soldier  of  the  king's,"  there  are  two  genitive  cascn; 
the  first  phrase  implying,  "  cue  of  the  bool^s  of  my  brother^"  l^H* 


ETYMOLOGY.  41 

next,  "one  of  the  servants  of  the  queen  ;"  and  the  last,  "one  of 
the  soMiers  of  the  king."  But  as  the  preposition  governs  the  ob- 
jective case  ;  and  as  there  are  not,  in  each  of  these  sentences, 
two  apostrophes  with  the  letter  s  coming  after  them,  we  cannot 
with  propriety  say,  that  there  ai'e  two  genitive  cases. 

CHAPTER  IV. 

OF  ADJECTIVES, 

SECTION  L     Of  the  nature  of  Adjectives,  and  the  degrees  of 

compamsan. 

An  Adjective  is  a  word  added  to  a  substantive,  to  ex- 
press its  quality  :  as,  ''  An  industrious  man  ;"  "  A  virtuous 
woman  ;"   "  A  benevolent  mind." 

In  English,  the  adjective  is  not  varied  on  account  of  gen- 
der, number,  or  case.  Thus  we  saj,  *'  A  careless  boy  ; 
careless  girls." 

The  only  variation  which  it  admits,  is  that  of  the  degrees 
of  comparison. 

There  are  commonly  reckoned  three  degrees  of  compari- 
son ;  the  POSITIVE,  the  comparative,  and  the  superlative. 

Grammarians  have  generally  enun  erated  these  three  de- 
grees of  comparison  ;  but  the  first  of  them  has  been  thought  by 
some  writers,  to  be,  improperly,  termed  a  degree  of  comparison ; 
as  it  seems  to  be  nothing  more  than  the  simple  form  of  the  ad- 
jective, and  not  to  imply  either  comparison  or  degree.  This 
opinion  may  be  well  founded,  unless  the  adjective  be  supposed 
to  imply  comparison  or  degree,  by  containing  a  secrot  or  general 
reference  to  other  things  :  as,  when  we  say,  "  he  is  a  tall  man," 
*' this  is  a /air  day,'*  we  make  some  reference  to  the  ordinary 
size  of  men,  and  to  different  weather. 

The  Positive  state  expresses  the  quality  of  an  object, 
without  any  increase  or  diminution  :  as,  good,  wise,  great. 

The  Comparative  Degree  increases  or  lessens  the  posi- 
tive in  signiiication :  as,  wiser,  greater,  less  wise. 

The  Superlative  Degree  increases  or  lessens  the  positive 
to  the  highest  or  lowest  degree  :  as,  wisest,  greatest,  least 
wise. 

The  simple  word,  or  positive,  becomes  the  comparative, 
by  adding  r  or  er;  and  the  superlative,  by  adding  5f  or  e^^,  to 
the  end  of  it :  as,  wise,  wiser,  wisest,  great,  greater,  greatest. 
And  the  adverbs  more  and  most,  placed  before  the  adjec- 
tive, have  the  same  effect :  as,  wise,  more  wise,  most  wise. 

The  termination  ish  may  be  accounted  in  some  sort  a  degree 
of  comparison,  by  which  the  signification  is  diminished  below  th« 
D2 


42  ENGLISH  OIIAMMAK. 

positive  :  ^is,  hlacfr,  blackish,  or  tending  to  Ulackness  ;  salt,  sallisJk, 
or  having  a  little  taste  of'^jalt. 

The  word  rather  is  very  properly  used  to  express  a  small  degree 
or  excess  of  a  quality  :  as,  "  she  is  leather  profuse  in  her  expenses.** 

Monosyllables,  for  the  most  part,  are  compared  by  e?-  and  est ; 
and  dissyllables  by  more  and  most:  as,  mild,  milder,  mildest ;  fru- 
gal, more  frugal,  most  frugal.  Dissyllables  ending  in  y ;  a«, 
^^PPy?  lovely  ;  and  in  le  after  a  mute,  as,  able,  ample ;  or  accent- 
ed on  the  last  syllable,  as,  discreet,  polite  ;  easily  admit  of  cr  and 
est:  as,  happier,  happiest ;  abler,  ablest  ;  politer,  politest.  Words 
of  more  than  two  syllables  hardly  ever  admit  of  those  terminations. 

In  some  words  the  superlative  is  formed  by  adding  tUe  adverb 
most  to  the  end  of  them  ;  as,  nethermost,  uttermost,  or  utmost, 
undermost,  uppermost,  foremost. 

In  English,  as  in  most  languages,  there  are  some  words  of 
very  common  use,  (in  which  the  caprice  of  custom  is  apt  to  get 
the  better  of  analogy,)  that  are  irregular  in  this  respect:  as» 
■*good,  better,  best;  bad,  worse,  worst;  little,  less,  least ;  much  or 
many,  more,  most ;  near,  nearer,  nearest  or  next :  late,  later,  late»?t 
or  last ;  old,  older  or  elder,  oldest  or  eldest ;"  and  a  few  others. 

An  adjective  put  without  a  substantive,  with  the  definite  ar- 
ticle before  it,  becomes  a  substantive  in  sense  and  meaning,  and 
is  written  as  a  substantive  ;  as,  "  Providence  rewards  the  good, 
and  punishes  the  bad.^^ 

Various  nouns  placed  before  other  nouns  assume  the  nature  o. 
adjectives ;  as,  sea  fish,  wine  vessel,  corn  field,  meadow  ground,  &c. 

Numeral  adjectives  are  either  cardinal,  or  ordinal :  cardinal,  aa, 
one,  two,  three,  &c.  ;  ordinal,  as,  first,  second,  third,  &c. 

SECTION  II.     Remarks  on  the  subject  of  Comparison, 
IF  we  consider  the  subject  of  comparison  attentively,  we  shall 
perceive  that  the  degrees  of  it  are  infinite  in  number,  or  at  least 
indefinite. — A  mountain  is  larger  than  a  mite  ; — by  how  many 
degrees  ?  How  much  bigger  is  the  earth  than  a  grain  of  sand  ? 
By  how  many  degrees  was  Socrates  wiser  than  Alcibiades  ?  or  by 
how  many  is  snow  whiter  than  this  paper  ?  It  is  plain,  that  to 
these  and  the  like  questions,  no  definite  answers  can  be  returned. 
In  quantities,  however,  that  may  be  exactly  measured,  the  de- 
grees of  excess  may  be  exactly  ascertained.   A  foot  is  just  twelve! 
limes  as  long  as  an  inch  ;  and  an  hour  is  sixty  times  the  lengtlfl 
of  a  minute.     But,  in  regard  to  qualities,  and  to  those  quantities 
■which  cannot  be  measured  exactly,  it  is  impossible  to  say  howl 
many  degrees  may  be  comprehended  in  the  comparative  excess*! 
But  though  these  degrees  are  infinite  or  indefinite  in  fact,  thej^l 
cannot  be  so  in  language  ;  nor  would  it  be  convenient,  if  lan-»l 
ghage  were  to  express  many  of  them.    In  regard  to  unmeasuredl 
quantities  and  qualities,  the  degrees  of  more  and  less,  (besideaj 
those  marked  above,)  may  be  expressed  intelligibly,  at  least,  ill 
not  accurately,  by  certain  adverbs,  or  words  of  like  import :  as,i 
•*  Socrates  was  rtiuch  wiser  than  Alcibiades  ;"  "Snow  is  a  great 


ETYMOLOGY.  43 

dettl  n  hiinr  il  .in  tltis  pa})er  ;"  "  Epaminonda*  was  hyfnr  tlin  !no5t 
McoompliHhfMl  of  the  Thebans  ;"  "  Tl:e  evening  star  13  a  vtry 
5j)lciRlitl  ol)ject,  but  cbe  sun  is  incomparably  more  splendid  ;" 
"  The  Dcitv  is  injinitdy  greater  than  the  greatest  of  his  crea- 
tin-es."  The  inaccuracy  of  tijcse,  and  the  hke  expressions,  \s 
not  a  material  inconvenience  ;  and,  if  it  were,  it  is  unavoidable: 
for  hninan  speecli  can  only  express  human  thought;  and  where 
thought  is  necessarily  inaccurate,  language  must  be  so  too. 

When  the  word  very^  exceedingly^  or  any  other  of  similar  ini 
port,  is  put  before  the  positive,  it  is  called  by  some  writers  tiie 
Ruperlative  of  eminence,  to  distinguish  it  from  the  other  srperla- 
tire,  which  has  been  already  mentioned,  and  is  called  the  super- 
lative of  comparison.  Thus,  Vivy  eloquent^  is  termed  the  super- 
lative of  eminence  ;  most  eloquent,  the  superlative  of  comparison. 
In  the  superlative  of  eminence,  something  of  comparison  is,  how- 
ever, remotely  or  indirectly  intimated  ;  for  we  cannot  reasona- 
bly call  a  man  very  eloquent,  without  comparing  his  eloquence 
with  the  eloquence  of  other  men. 

The  comparative  may  be  so  employed,  as  to  express  the  same 
pre-eminence  or  inferiority  as  the  superlative.  Thus,  ihe  sen- 
tence, "Of  all  acquirements,  virtue  is  the  most  valuable ^''^  con- 
veys  th(j  same  sentiment  as  the  following:  ** Virtue  is  more 
Vfiluahle  than  every  other  acquirement." 

CHAPTER   V. 
OF   PROJVOUjVS, 
A  Pronoun  Is  a  word  used  instead  of  a  noun,  to  avoid 
the  too  frequent  repetition  of  the  same  word :  as,  "  Tlie 
man  is  happy ,  he  is  benevolent ;  he  is  useful." 

There  are  three  kinds  of  pronouns,  viz.  the  tersoxal 
the  RELATIVE,  and  the  adjective  pronouns. 

SECTION  I.      0/  the  Personal  Pronouns. 

There  are  iivc  Personal  Pronouns,  viz.  /,  t/ion,  he,  she, 
it  ;  with  their  plurals,  we\  ye,  or  i/ou,  they. 

Personal  pronouns  admit  of  person,  number,  gender, 
and  case. 

The  persons  of  pronouns  are  three  in  each  number,  viz. 

/,  is  the  first  person  ) 

Iliou,  is  the  second  person  >  Singular. 

He,  she,  or  it,  is  the  third  person    3 

fVe,  is  the  first  person  1 

Ye  or  you,  is  the  second  person       >  Plural. 

They,  is  the  thii*d  person  j 

This  account  of  persons  wiil  be  very  intelligible,  when  we  re- 
flcjct,  that  there  are  three  persons  who  may  be  the  subject  of  any 
discouraie  :  firBt,  the  person  wlio  speaks,  may  speak  of  liisiiseif , 


44 


ENGLISH    GRAMMAR. 


m 


Kecondly,  he  may  speak  of  the  person  to  whom  he  addresses  him- 
self; thirdly,  he  may  speak  of  some  other  person:  and  as  the 
speakers,  the  persons  spoken  to,  and  the  other  persons  spoken 
of,  may  be  many,  so  each  of  these  persons  must  have  the  pli 
ral  number- 


I 


The  numbers  of  pronouns,  like  those  of  substantives, 
are  two,  the  singular  and  the  plural :  as,  /,  ihou,  he,  we,  ye 
or  you,  they. 

Gender  has  respect  only  to  the  third  person  singular 
of  the  pronouns,  he,  she,  it.  He  is  masculine;  she  is  femi- 
nine ;  it  is  neuter. 

The  persons  speaking  and  spoken  to,  being  at  the  same  time 
the  subjects  of  the  discourse,  are  supposed  to  be  present  ;  from 
which,  and  other  circumstances,  their  sex  is  fcommonly  known, 
and  needs  not  to  be  marked  by  a  distinction  of  gender  in  the 
pronouns  :  but  the  third  person,  or  thing  spoken  of,  being  absent, 
and  in  many  respects  unknown,  it  is  necessary  that  it  should  be 
marked  by  a  distinction  of  gender ;  at  least  when  some  particu 
lar  person  or  thing  is  i^poken  of,  that  ought  to  be  more  distinctly 
marked :  accordingly  tlie  pronoun  singular  of  the  third  per 
son  has  the  three  genders,  he,  she,  it. 

Pronouns  have  three  cases  ;  the  nominative,  the  pos- 
sessive, and  the  objective. 

The  objective  case  of  a  pronoun  has,  in  general,  a  form  differ- 
ent from  that  of  the  nominative,  or  the  possessive  case. 

The  personal  pronouns  are  thus  declined : 


Person. 

Case. 

First. 

Nom, 

Poss, 

Obj, 

Second. 

Nom. 

Poss. 

Obj. 

Third. 

Kom, 

Mas, 

Poss 
Obj. 
Nom. 

Third, 

Fern. 

Poss, 

Obj, 

Nom. 

Third. 

KtiUer, 

Poss. 

Obj, 

Singular. 

Plural. 

I. 

We. 

Mine. 

Oars. 

Me. 

Us. 

Thou. 

Ye  or  you 

Thine. 

Yours. 

Thee. 

You. 

He. 

They. 

His. 

Theirs. 

Him. 

Them. 

She.      ) 
Hers.    5 

They. 

Theirs. 

Her. 

Them       ' 

It. 

They      ' 

Its. 

Theirs 

It. 

Them. 

ErY3I0L0(j;Y  45 

SECTION  II.     Of  tht  Relative  Pronouns. 

Relative  Pronouns  are  such  as  relate  in  general,  to 
some  word  or  phrase  going  before,  wliich  is  thence  called 
the  antecedent :  thej  are,  who,  which,  and  that :  as,  **  The 
man  is  happy  who  hyes  virtuously.'  * 

What  is  a  kind  of  compound  relative,  including  both  the 
antecedent  and  the  relative,  and  is  mostly  equivalent  to 
that  lohich :  as,  "  This  is  what  I  wanted ;"  that  is  to  say, 
*'  the  thing  which  I  wanted." 

WJio  is  applied  to  persons,  which  to  animals  and  inani- 
mate things  :  as,  "  He  is  Si  friend,  who  is  faithful  in  adver- 
sity ;"  *'  The  bird,  which  sung  so  sweetly,  is  flown ;"  "  This 
is  the  tree,  which  produces  no  fruit." 

That,  as  a  relative,  is  often  used  to  prevent  the  too  frequent 
repetition  of  who  and  zohich.  It  is  applied  to  both  persons 
and  things  :  as,  "  He  that  acts  wisely  deserves  praise ;" 
"  Modesty  is  a  quality  that  highly  adorns  a  woman." 

Who  is  of  both  numbers,  and  is  thus  declined : 

Singular  and  Plural. 

Nominatize,  Who. 

Possessive,  Whose. 

Objective,  Whom. 

Jfhichy  that,  and  what,  sue  likewise  of  both  numbers,  but  tney 
do  not  vary  their  termination  ;  except  that  whose  is  sometimes 
used  as  the  possessive  case  of  which :  as,  "  Is  there  any  other 
doctrine  whose  followers  are  punished  .^" 

"  And  the  fruit 

Of  that  forbidden  tree  whose  mortal  taste 

Brought  death."  MILT029. 

"  Pure  the  joy  without  allay, 

Whose  very  rapture  is  tranquillity."  TOUNO. 

"The  lights  and  shades,  whose  well  accorded  strife 
Gives  all  the  strength  and  colour  of  our  life."     pope. 
"  This  is  one  of  the  clearest  characteristics  of  its  being  a  reli- 
gion whose  origin  is  divine."  blair. 
By  the  use  of  this  license,  one  word  is  substiuited  for  three : 
as,  "Philosophy,  whose  end  is  to  instruct  us  in  the  knowledge  of 
nature,"  for,  "  Philoso[)hy,  the  end  of  which  is  to  instruct  us,"  &c. 
JfTiOyWhich,  and  whatj  have  sometimes  the  w^ords  soever  and  ever 
annexed  to    them;    as,  ^^ whosoever  or  whoever,  whichsoever  or 
whichever,  whatsoever  or  whatever ;"  but  they  are  seldom  used  in 
modern  style. 

♦  Thfs  relative  pronoun,  when  used  interrogatively,  relates  to  a  word  or 
phrase  which  is  not  unteeeJenty  but  ^ubseo^ucni,  to  tJie  relative.  See  uo^e  under 
Uie  VI.  auleofSynta.\, 


46  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 

The  word  that  is  sometimes  a  relative,  sometimes  a  demon- 
strative  pronoun,  and  sometimes  a  conjunction.  It  is  a  relative^ 
when  it  may  be  turned  into  who  or  which  without  destroying  the 
sense :  as,  "  They  that  (who)  reprove  us,  may  be  our  best  friends ;" 
*'  From  every  thing  that  (which)  you  see,  derive  instruction."  It 
is  a  demonstrative  pronoun  when  it  is  followed  immediately  by 
a  substantive,  to  which  it  is  either  joined,  or  referS;  and  which  il 
limits  or  quaUfies :  as,  ^'  That  boy  is  industrious  ;"  "  Thathelongs 
to  me  ,'*  meaning,  that  book,  that  desk,  &c.  It  is  a  conjunction, 
when  it  joins  sentences  together,  and  cannot  be  turned  into  who 
or  which,  without  destroying  the  sense :  as,  *'  Take  care  that  every 
Jay  be  well  employed."  "  I  hope  he  will  beheve  that  I  have  not 
.icted  improperly." 

Who,  which,  and  ivhat,  are  called  Inten-ogatives,  when  they  are 
dsed  in  asking  questions  ;  as,  "  fVho  is  he  .^"  "  Which  is  the  book  ?" 
^*  What  art  thou  doing  ?" 

Whether  was  formerly  made  use  of  to  signify  interrogation  :  as, 
**  Whether  of  these  shall  I  choose  ?"  but  it  is  now  seldom  used,  the 
interrogative  whith  being  substituted  for  it.  Some  grammari- 
ans think  that  the  use  of  it  should  be  revived,  as,  like  either  and 
neither,  it  points  to  the  dual  number ;  and  would  contribute  to 
render  our  expressions  concise  and  definite. 

Some  writers  have  classed  the  interrogatives  as  a  separate  kind 
of  pronouns ;  but  they  are  too  nearly  related  to  the  relative  pro- 
nouns, both  in  nature  and  form,  to  render  such  a  division  pro- 
per. They  do  not,  in  fact,  lose  the  character  of  relatives, 
when  they  become  interrogatives.  The  only  dijfference  is,  that 
tmthout  an  interrogation,  the  relatives  have  reference  to  a  sub- 
ject which  is  antecedent,  definite,  and  known  ;  ivith  an  interro- 
gation, to  a  subject  which  is  subsequent,  indefinite,  and  unknown, 
and  which  it  is  expected  that  the  answer  should  express  and  as 
certain. 

SECTION  III.     Of  the  Adjective  Pronouns. 

Adjective  Pronouns  are  of  a  mixed  nature,  participating 
the  properties  both  of  pronouns  and  adjectives. 

The  adjective  pronouns  may  be  subdivided  into  four 
sorts,  namely,  the  possessive^  the  distributive^  the  demon- 
strative, and  the  indefinite. 

1  The  possQ^sive  are  those  which  relate  to  possession 
or  property.  There  are  seven  of  them  ;  viz.  m-^,  thy,  his, 
her,  our,  your,  their.  W\ 

Mine  and  thine,  instead  oCmy  and  thy,  were  foi-m^rly  used  I»^' 
fore  a  substantive,  or  adjective,  beginning  with  a  vowel,  or  a  si- 
lent h:  as,  "Blot  out  all  mine  iniquities.'' 

The  pronounS;  his,  viine,  thine,  have  the  same  form,  whether 
they  are  possessive  pronouns,  or  tlie  ])08sessive  cases  of  their  r<a 
gpectivo  personal  pronouns.     Spe  note  to  RuIq  |0, 


ETYMOLOGY.  47 

A  few  exami)les  will  probably  assist  the  learner,  to  distinguish 
the  possessive  pronouns  from  the  genitive  cases  of  their  corres- 
pon(ient  personal  jironouns. 

The  follovving  sentences  exemplify  the  possessive  pronouns. — 
"jW?/ lesson  is  finished;  Thy  hooks  are  defaced;  He  loves  his 
studies  ;  She  performs  her  duty  ;  We  own  oiw  faults  ;  Your  situa- 
tion is  distressing  ;  I  admire  their  virtues." 

The  following  are  examples  of  the  possessive  cases  of  the  per- 
sonal pronouns. — "This  desk  is  mine;  the  other  is  thine;  These 
trinkets  are  his ;  those  are  hers ;  This  house  is  owr^,  and  that  is 
yours ;  Theirs  is  very  commodious." 

Some  grammarians  consider  its  as  a  possessive  pronoun. 

The  two  words  own  and  self,  are  used  in  conjunction  v^^ith  pro- 
nouns. Own  is  added  to  possessives,  both  singular  and  plural: 
as,  ^^  My  own  hand,  our  oivn  house."  It  is  emphatical,  and  im- 
plies a  siient  contrariety  or  op])osition  :  as,  "  I  live  in  my  own 
iioHse,"  that  is,  "  not  in  a  hired  house."  Self  is  added  to  posses- 
sives ;  as,  myself  yourselves ;  and  sometinies  to  personal  pro- 
nouns :  as,  himself]  itself  themselves.  It  then,  like  own,  expresses 
emphasis  and  ojjposition  :  as,  "I  did  this  myself,"  that  is,  "not 
pnother;"  or  it  forms  a  reciprocal  pronoun:  as,  "  We  hurt  our- 
h'  "Ives  by  vain  rage." 

Himself  ihemselveSj  are  now  used  in  the  nominative  case,  in- 
r>tead  of  hisself  theirselves ;  as,  "  He  came  himself;"  "  He  hiwi- 
self  shall  do  this;"  "They  performed  it  themselves." 

2  The  distributive  are  those  which  denote  the  persons 
or  tilings  that  make  up  a  number,  as  taken  separately  and 
singly.  They  are  each,  cxery,  either  :  as,  *'  Each  of  his 
brothers  is  in  a  favourable  situation ;"  "  Every  man  must 
account  for  himself;"  "  I  have  not  seen  either  of  them.'* 

Each  relates  to  two  or  niore  persons  or  things,  and  signifies 
either  of  the  two,  or  every  one  of  any  number  taken  separately. 

Every  relates  to  several  persons  or  things,  and  signifies  each 
one  of  them  all  taken  separately.  This  pronoun  was  formerly 
used  apart  from  its  noun,  but  it  is  now  constantly  annexed  to  it,  ex- 
cept iiv  legal  proceedings;  as  in  the  phrase,  "all  andeueri/  of  them.** 

Either  relates  to  two  persons  or  things  taken  separately,  and 
signifies  the  one  or  the  other.  To  say,  "either  of  the  three,"  is 
therefore  improper. 

JVeither  imports  "  not  either ;"  that  is,  not  one  nor  the  other :  as, 
'Neither  of  my  friends  was  there." 

3  The  demonstrative  are  those  which  precisely  point  out 
the  subjects  to  which  they  relate  :  this  and  that,  these  and 
those,  are  of  this  class :  as,  "  This  is  true  charity ;  that  is 
only  its  image." 

This  refers  to  the  nearest  person  or  thing,  and  that  to  the 
most  distant :  as,  "  This  man  is  more  intelligent  than  that,*' 


formJl 
rty  afll 


48  ENGLISH  GRAM3IAR. 

This  indicates  the  latter  or  last  mentioned  ;  thai,  the  for 
or  first  mentioned  :  as,  "  Both  wealth  and  poverty 
temptations;  that,  tends  to  excite  pride,  this,  discontent." 
Perhaps  the  words  former  and  latter  may  be  properly  ranked 
amongst  the  demonstrative  pronouns,  especially  in  many  of 
their  applications.  The  following  sentence  may  serve  as  an  ex- 
ample :  "  It  was  happy  for  the  state,  that  Fabius  continued  in 
the  command  with  Minucius :  the  former^s  phlegm  was  a  check 
upon  the  latter^s  vivacity." 

4  The  indefinite  are  those  which  express  their  subjects 
in  an  indefinite  or  general  manner.  The  following  are  of 
this  kind  :  some,  other,  any,  one,  all,  such,  &c. 

Of  these  pronouns,  only  the  words  one  and  other  are  raried 
One  has  a  possessive  case,  which  it  forms  in  the  sam<e  manner 
as  substantives:  as,  one^one^s.  This  word  has  a  general  signifi- 
cation, meaning  people  at  large  ;  a. id  sometimes  also  a  peculiar 
reference  to  the  person  wno  is  speaking  :  as,  "  One  ought  to  pity 
the  distresses  of  mankiud."  "  One  is  apt  to  love  one'*s  self." 
'  This  word  is  often  used,  by  good  writers,  in  the  plural  number: 
as,  "  The  great  ones  of  the  world  ;"  "  The  boy  wounded  the  oW 
bird,  and  stole  the  young  ones  ;^^  "  My  wife  and  the  little  on4 
are  in  good  health." 

Other  is  declined  in  the  following  manner : 

Singular.  Plural. 

Nom.  Other  Others 

Poss*  Other^s  Others^ 

Obj.  Other  Others. 

The  plural  others  is  onl}^  used  when  apart  from  the  noun  to 
which  it  refers,  whether  expressed  or  understood  :  as,  "  When 
you  have  perused  these  papers,  I  will  send  you  the  others.^^  **  He 
pleases  some,  but  he  disgusts  others.^"*  When  this  pronoun  is 
joined  to  nouns,  either  singular  or  plural,  it  has  no  variation :  as, 
"  the  other  man,"  "  the  other  men." 

The  following  phrases  may  serve  to  exemplify  the  indefinite 
pronouns.  ^^  Some  of  you  are  wise  and  good  ;"  "A  few  of  them 
were  idle,  the  othej's  industrious ;"  "  Neither  is  there  any  that  is 
imexceptionable  ;"  "  One  ought  to  know  one''s  own  mind  •,"  "  They 
were  all  present;"  "  Such  is  the  state  of  man,  that  he  is  never  at 
rest ;"  "  Some  are  happy,  while  others  are  miserable," 

The  word  another  is  composed  of  the  indefinite  article  prefixed 
to  the  word  other, 

JVone  is  used  in  both  numbers :  as,  "  JVone  is  so  deaf  as  he  that 
will  not  hear  ;"  "  JVone  of  those  are  equal  to  these."  It  seems 
originally  to  have  signified,  according  to  its  derivation,  not  one, 
and  therefore  to  have  had  no  plural ;  but  there  is  good  authority 
for  the  use  of  it  in  the  plural  number :  as,  "  JVone  that  go  unto 
her  return  again."  Prov.  ii.  19.  "Terms  of  peace  were  none 
vouck-^rd."  MILTON.     "Abne  of  them  are  varied  to  express  the 


ETYMOLOGY.  49 

fender."  "  N'one  of  tlieni  /?/7ue  different  endings  for  the  numbers. ** 
.owth's  Introduction.     "  Ab?ie  of  their  productions  are  extant.'- 
Blair. 

We  have  endeavoured  to  explain  the  nature  of  the  adjective 
pronouns,  and  to  distinguish  and  arrange  them  intelhgibly :  but 
it  is  difficult,  perhaps  im])racticahle,  to  define  and  divide  them  in 
a  manner  perfectly  unexceptionable.  Some  of  them,  in  particu- 
lar, may  seem  to  require  a  different  arrangement.  We  presume 
however,  that,  for  every  useful  })urpose,  the  present  classification 
is  sufHciently  correct.  All  the  pronouns,  except  the  personal  and 
relative,  may  indeed,  in  a  general  view  of  them,  be  considered  as 
definitive  pronouns,  because  they  define  or  ascertain  the  extent  of 
the  common  name,  or  general  term,  to  which  they  refer,  or  are 
joined  ;  but  as  each  class  of  them  does  this,  more  or  less  exactly^ 
or  in  a  manner  peculiar  to  itself,  a  division  adapted  to  this  cir- 
cumstance appears  to  be  suitable  to  the  nature  of  things,  and  the 
understanding  of  learners. 

It  is  the  opinion  of  some  respectable  grammarians,  that  the 
words  thiSf  that,  any,  some,  such,  his,  their,  our,  &c.  are  pronouns, 
when  they  are  used  separately  from  the  nouns  to  w^hich  they  re- 
late ;  but  that,  when  they  are  joined  to  those  nouns,  they  are  not 
to  be  considered  as  belonging  to  this  species  of  words ;  because, 
in  this  association,  they  rather  ascertain  a  substantive,  than  sup- 
ply the  place  of  one.  They  assert  that,  in  the  phrases,  "  give  me 
that,^^  "i/it5  is  John's,"  and  ^^  such  were  some  of  you,"  the  words 
in  italics  are  pronouns ;  but  that,  in  the  following  phrases,  they 
are  not  pronouns ;  "  this  book  is  instructive,"  "  some  boys  are  in- 
genious," "mi/ health  is  declining,"  "  owr  hearts  are  deceitful,"  &c. 
Other  grammarians  think,  that  all  these  words  are  pure  adjec- 
tives;  and  that  none  of  them  can  properly  be  called  pronouns; 
as  the  genuine  pronoun  stands  by  itself,  without  the  aid  of  a 
noun  expressed  or  understood.  They  are  of  opinion,  that  in  the 
expressions,  "  Give  me  that,"  "  this  is  John's,"  &c.  the  noun  is 
always  understood,  and  must  be  supplied  in  the  mind  of  the 
reader:  as,  "Give  me  that  book  ;^^  ^Hhis  book  is  John's;"  "  and 
such  persons  were  some  persons  amongst  you." 

Some  writers  are  of  opinion  that  the  pronouns  should  be  classed 
into  substantive  and  adjective  pronouns.  Under  the  former,  they 
include  the  personal  and  the  relative  ;  under  the  latter,  all  the 
others.  But  this  division,  though  a  neat  one,  does  not  appear  to 
be  accurate.  All  the  relative  pronouns  will  not  range  imder  the 
substantive  head. — We  have  distributed  these  parts  of  grammar, 
in  the  mode  which  we  think  most  correct  and  intelligible  :  but, 
for  the  information  of  students,  and  to  direct  their  inquiries  on 
the  subject,  we  state  the  different  opinions  of  several  judicious 
grammarians.     See  the  Octavo  Grammar  on  these  points. 


E 


50  ENGLISH  GRAM3IAR. 

CHAPTER  VI. 

OF  VERBS. 

SECTION  I.     Of  the  nature  of  Verbs  in  general. 

A  VERB  is  a  word  which  signifies  to  be,  to  do,  or  to  sur- 
FER ;  as,  **  I  am,  I  rule,  I  am  ruled." 

Verbs  are  of  three  kinds  ;  active,  passive,  and  neuter 
They  are  also  divided,into  regular,  irregular,  and  de- 
fective. 

A  Verb  Active  expresses  an  action,  and  necessarily  im- 
plies an  agent,  and  an  object  acted  upon  :  as,  to  love  ;  **  I 
love  Penelope." 

A  Verb  Passive  expresses  a  passion  or  a  suffering  or 
the  receiving  of  an  action ;  and  necessarily  implies  an  ob- 
ject acted  upon,  and  an  agent  by  which  it  is  acted  upon : 
as,  to  be  loved  ;  "  Penelope  is  loved  by  me." 

A  Verb  Neuter  expresses  neither  action  nor  passion,  but 
being,  or  a  state  of  being :  as,  "  I  am,  I  sleep,  I  sit."* 

The  verb  active  is  also  called  transitive,  because  the  action 
passes  over  to  the  object,  or  has  an  effect  upon  some  other  thing: 
as,  "The  tutor  instructs  his  pupils  ;"  "  I  esteem  the  man." 

Verbs  neuter  may  properly  be  denominated  intransitives,  be- 
cause the  effect  is  confined  within  the  subject,  and  does  not  pas 
over  to  any  object :  as,  "  I  sit,  he  lives,  they  sleep." 

Some  of  the  verbs  that  are  usually  ranked  among  neuters, 
make  a  near  approach  to  the  nature  of  a  verb  active ;  but  they 
may  be  distinguished  from  it  by  their  being  intransitive :  as,  to 
run,  to  walk,  to  fly,  &c.  The  rest  are  more  obviously  neuter, 
and  more  clearly  expressive  of  a  middle  state  between  mction 
and  passion  :  as,  to  stand,  to  lie,  to  sleep,  &c. 

In  English,  many  verbs  are  used  both  in  an  active  and  a  neu- 
ter signification,  the  construction  only  determining  of  which 
kind  they  are  :  as,  to  flatten,  signifying  to  make  even  or  level,  is 
a  verb  active ;  but  when  it  signifies  to  grow  dull  or  insipid,  it  is 

a  verb  neuter. 

g.         .  '        '  ' '- 

*  Verbs  have  been  distinguished  by  some  writers,  into  the  following  kinds. 

1st.  Active-transitive^  or  those  which  denote  an  action  that  passed  from  the 
agent  to  some  object :  as,  Cesar  conquered  Pompey. 

2d.  Active-intransitive^  or  those  which  express  that  kind  of  action,  which  has 
no  effect  upon  any  thing  beyond  the  agent  himself:  as,  Cesaj  walked. 

3d.  Passive^  or  those  which  express,  not  action,  but  passion,  whether  pleasing 
or  painful :  as  Portia  was  loved ;  Pompey  was  conquered. 

4th.  J^euter,  or  those  which  express  an  attribute  that  consists  neither  in  ac- 
tion nor  passion :  as,  Cesar  stood. 

This  appears  to  be  an  orderly  arrangement.  But  if  the  class  of  active-intraiu 
sitive  verbs  were  admitted,  it  would  rather  perplex  than  assist  the  learner:  for 
the  difference  between  verbs  active  and  neuter,  as  transitive  and  intransitive,  Is 
easy  and  obvious ;  but  the  difference  between  verbs  absolutely  neuter  and  in- 
transitively active,  is  not  always  clear.  It  is,  indeed,  often  very  difficult  to  b« 
ascertained.  '  * 


ETYMOLOGY.  51 

A  neuter  verb,  by  the  addition  of  a  preposition,  may  become  a 
compound  active  verb.  To  smile  is  a  neuter  verb  ;  it  cannot, 
therefore,  be  followed  by  an  objective  case,  nor  be  construed  as 
a  passive  verb.  We  cannot  say,  she  smiled  him,  or,  he  was  smiled. 
But  to  smile  on  being  a  compound  active  verb,  we  properly  say,  she 
smiled  on  him ;  he  was  smiled  on  by  fortune  in  every  undertaking. 

Auxiliary  or  helping  Verbs,  are  those  by  the  help  of 
which  the  EngHsh  verbs  are  principally  conjugated.  Tliey 
are,  do,  he,  have,  shall,  will,  may,  can,  with  their  variations  : 
and  let  and  must,  which  have  no  variation.^ 

In  our  definition  of  the  verb,  as  a  part  of  speech  which  signi 
fies  io  he,  to  do,  or  to  suffer,  &lc.  we  have  included  every  thing, 
either  expressly  or  by  necessary  consequence,  that  is  essential  to 
its  nature,  and  nothing  that  is  not  essential  to  it.  This  definition 
is  warranted  by  the  authority  of  Dr.  Lowth,  and  of  many  other 
respectable  writers  on  grammar.  *  There  are,  however,  some 
grammarians,  who  consider  assertion  as  the  essence  of  the  verb. 
But,  as  the  participle  and  the  infinitive,  if  included  in  it,  would 
prove  insuperable  objections  to  their  scheme,  they  have,  witiiout 
hesitation,  denied  the  former  a  place  in  the  verb,  and  declared 
the  latter  to  be  merely  an  abstract  noun.  This  appears  to  be 
going  rather  too  far  in  support  of  an  hypothesis.  It  seems  to  be 
incumbent  on  these  grammarians,  to  reject  also  the  imperative 
mood.  What  part  of  speech  would  they  make  the  verbs  in  the 
following  sentence  }  "  Depart  instantly  :  improve  your  time  :  for- 
give us  our  sins."  Will  it  be  said,  that  the  verbs  in  these  phrases 
are  assertions? 

In  reply  to  these  questions,  it  has  been  said,  that  "  Depart  in- 
stantly," is  an  expression  equivalent  to,  **  I  desire  you  to  depart 
instantly,"  and  that  as  the  latter  phrase  implies  affirmation  or 
assertion,  so  does  the  former.  But,  supposing  the  phrases  to  be 
exactly  alike  in  sense,  the  reasoning  is  not  conclusive.  Isi.  In 
the  latter  phrase,  the  only  part  implying  affirmation,  is,  "  I  de- 
sire." The  words  "  to  depart,"  are  in  the  infinitive  mood,  and 
contain  no  assertion  :  they  afl?irm  nothing.  2d.  The  position  is 
not  tenable,  that  "  Equivalence  in  sense  implies  similarity  in 
grammatical  nature."  It  proves  too  much,  and  therefore  nothing. 
This  mode  of  reasoning  would  confound  the  acknowledged 
grammatical  distinction  of  words.  A  pronoun,  on  this  principle, 
may  be  proved  to  be  a  noun  ;  a  noun,  a  verb  ;  an  adverb,  a  noun 
and  preposition  ;  the  superlative  degree,  the  comparative ;  the 
imperative  mood,  the  indicative  ;  the  future  tense,  the  present ; 
and  so  on :  because  they  may  respectively  be  resolved  into  simi- 
lar meanings.  Thus,  in  the  sentence,  "  I  desire  you  to  depart," 
the  words  to  depart,  may  be  called  a  noun,  because  they  are 
equivalent  in  sense  to  the  noun  departure,  in  the  following  sen- 

»  Let,  as  a  principal  verb,  has  kttest  and  kikih ;  but  as  a  hel|5in|  verb,  ii 
ft(}injts  of  no  variation. 


52  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 


1 


tence,  "  I  desire  your  departure."  The  words  "  depart  instantly," 
may  be  proved  to  be,  not  the  imperative  mood  with  an  adverb, 
but  the  indicative  and  infinitive,  with  a  noun  and  preposition  ; 
for  they  are  equivalent  to  "  I  desire  you  to  depart  in  an  instant." 
The  superlative  degree  in  this  sentence,  "  Of  all  acquirements 
virtue  is  the  most  valuable,"  may  pass  for  the  comparative,  be- 
cause it  conveys  the  same  sentiment  as,  "  Virtue  is  more  valu- 
able than  every  other  acquirement." 

We  shall  not  pursue  this  subject  any  further,  as  the  reader 
must  be  satisfied,  that  only  the  word  desire,  in  the  equivalent 
sentence,  implies  affirmation  ;  and  that  one  phrase  may,  in  sense^ 
be  equivalent  to  another,  though  its  grammatical  nature  is  essen* 
tially  different. 

To  verbs  belong  number,  person,  mood,  and  tense. 

SECTION  II.     Of  Mimher  and  Person. 
Verbs  have  two  numbers,  the  Singular  and  the  PluraL 
as,  **  I  run,  we  run,"  &c. 

In  each  number  there  are  three  persons ;  as, 

Singular.  PluraL 

First  Person.  I  love.  We  love. 

Second  Person,        Thou  lovest.  Ye  or  you  love. 

Third  Person.  He  loves.  They  love. 

Thus  the  verb,  in  some  parts  of  it,  varies  its  endings,  to  ex- 
press, or  agree  with,  differeiit  persons  of  the  same  number :  as^ 
"  I  love,  thou  lovest ;  he  loveth,  or  loves ;"  and  also  to  express 
different  numbers  of  the  same  person :  as,  "  thou  lovest,  ye  love  ; 
he  loveth,  they  Zove."  In  the  plural  number  of  the  verb,  there  is 
no  variation  of  ending  to  express  the  different  persons ;  and  the 
verb,  in  the  three  persons  plural,  is  the  same  as  it  is  in  the  first 
person  singular.  Yet  this  scanty  provision  of  terminations  is 
sufficient  for  all  the  purposes  of  discourse,  and  no  ambiguity 
arises  from  it:  the  verb  being  always  attended,  either  with  the 
noun  expressing  the  subject  acting  or  acted  upon,  or  with  the 
pronoun  representing  it.  For  this  reason,  the  plural  termina- 
tion in  en,  they  loven,  they  weren,  formerly  in  use,  was  laid  aside  as 
unnecessary,  and  has  long  been  obsolete. 

SECTION  III.     Of  Moods  and  Participles,  II 

Mood  or  Mode  is  a  particular  form  of  the  verb,  showing 
the  manner  in  which  the  being,  action,  or  passion,  is  re* 
presented. 

The  nature  of  a  mood  may  bo  more  intelligibly  explained  t| 
the  scholar,  by  observing,  that  it  consists  in  the  change  which  th| 
verb  undergoes,  to  signify  various  intentions  of  the  mind,  ani 
various  modifications  and  circumstances  of  action  :  which  exi 
planation,  if  compared  with  the  following  account  and  uses  of  the 
ilfterent  moods,  will  be  found  to  agree  with  and  illustrate  them. 


e* 

J 


ETYMOLOGY. 
There  are  live  moods  of  verbs,  the  indicative,  the  ik 

PERATIVE,  the    POTENTIAL,  the    SUBJUNCTIVE,  and    the  IN- 
FINITIVE. 

The  Indicative  Mood  simply  indicates  or  declares  a 
thing:  as,  "  He  loves,  he  is  loved :"  or  it  asks  a  question  ; 
as,  "  Does  he  love  ?"  *•  Is  he  loved  V 

The  Imperative  Mood  is  used  for  commanding,  exhort- 
ing, entreating,  or  permitting ;  as,  *'  Depart  thou  ;  mind  ye ; 
let  us  stay;  go  in  peace." 

Though  this  mood  derives  its  name  from  its  intimation  of 
command,  it  is  used  on  occasions  of  a  very  opposite  nature,  even 
in  the  humblest  supplications  of  an  inferior  being  to  one  who  is 
infinitely  his  superior :  as,  "  Give  us  this  day  our  daily  bread  ; 
and  forgive  us  our  trespasses." 

The  Potential  Mood  implies  possibility  or  liberty,  power, 
will,  or  obligation  :  as,  "  It  may  rain  ;  he  may  go  or  stay,  I 
can  ride  ;  he  would  walk  ;  they  should  learn." 

The  Subjunctive  Mood  represents  a  thing  under  a  condi- 
tion, motive,  wish,  supposition,  <Sz:c.  ;  and  is  preceded  by  a 
conjunction,  expressed  or  understood,  and  attended  by 
another  verb  :  as,  "  I  will  respect  him,  though  he  chide 
me;"  "Were  he  good,  he  would  be  happy;"  that  is,  "  if 
he  were  good." — See  note  8  to  Rule  19. 

The  Infinitive  Mood  expresses  a  thing  in  a  general  and 
unlimited  manner,  without  any  distinction  of  number  or 
person  ;  as,  '*  to  act,  to  speak,  to  be  feared." 

The  participle  is  a  certain  form  of  the  verb,  and  derives 
its  name  from  its  participating,  not  only  of  the  properties 
of  a  verb,  but  also  of  those  of  an  adjective  :  as,  "  I  am  de- 
sirous of  knowins^  him  f  "  admired  and  applauded,  he  be- 
came vain;"  "  Having  finished  his  work,  he  submitted  it," 
&c. 

There  are  three  participles,  the  Present  or  Active,  the 
Perfect  or  Passive,  and  the  Compound  Perfect:  as, 
*'  loving,  loved,  having  loved." — See  p,  72. 

Agreeably  to  the  general  practice  of  grammarians,  we  have 
represented  the  present  participle,  as  active  ;  and  the  past,  as 
passive  :  but  they  are  not  uniformly  so:  the  present  is  sometimes 
passive;  and  the  past  is  frequently  active.  Thus,  "  The  youth 
loas  consuming  by  a  slow  malady  ;"  "  The  Indian  was  burning 
by  tne  cruelty  of  his  enemies ;"  appear  to  be  instances  of  the 
present  participle  being  used  passively.  "  He  has  instructed  me ;" 
*'  I  have  gratefully  repaid  his  kindness ;"  are  examples  of  the 

E  2 


54  ENGLISH  GRAJMMAR. 

past  participle  being  applied  in  an  active  sense.,  We  may  also 
observe,  that  the  present  participle  is  sometimes  associated  with 
the  past  and  future  tenses  of  the  verb  ;  and  thepast  participle  con ' 
nected  w^ith  the  present  and  future  tenses. — The  most  unexcep 
tionable  distinction  which  grammarians  make  between  the  parti^ 
ciplcs,  is,  that  the  one  points  to  the  continuation  of  the  actioft' 
passion,  or  state,  denoted  by  the  verb ;  and  the  other,  to  the 
completion  of  it.  Thus,  the  present  participle  signifies  imperfect 
action,  or  action  begun  and  not  ended :  as,  "  I  am  writing  a 
letter."  The  past  participle  signifies  action  perfected,  or  finished : 
as,  "  I  have  written  a  letter  ;"  "  The  letter  is  icritttny* 

The  participle  is  distinguished  from  the  adjective,  by  the  for 
mer's  expressing  the  idea  of  time,  and  the  latter's  denoting  pnl 
a  quality.  The  phrases,  "  lovirig  to  give  as  well  as  to  receive^ 
"  moving  in  baste,"  "  heated  with  liquor,"  contain  participle 
giving  the  idea  of  time  ;  but  the  epithets  contained  in  the  e^ 
pressions,  "  a  loving  child,"  "  a  moving  spectacle,"  "  a  heated  ima 
gination,"  mark  simply  the  quahties  referred  to,  without  any  re- 
gard to  time  ;  and  may  properly  be  called  participial  adjectives. 

Participles  not  only  convey  the  notion  of  time  ;  but  they  also 
signify  actions,  and  govern  the  cases  of  nouns  and  pronouns,  in 
the  same  manner  as  verbs  do  ;  and  therefore  should  be  compre- 
hended in  the  general  name  of  verbs.  That  they  are  mere 
modes  of  the  verb,  is  manifest,  if  our  definition  of  a  verb  be  ad- 
mitted :  for  they  signify  being,  doing,  or  suffering,  with  the  de- 
signation of  time  superadded.  But  if  the  essence  of  the  verb  be 
made  to  consist  in  affirmation  or  assertion,  not  only  the  partici- 
ple will  be  excluded  from  its  place  in  the  verb,  but  the  infinitive 
itself  also  ;  which  certain  ancient  grammarians  of  great  autho- 
rity held  to  be  alone  the  genuine  verb,  simple  and  unconnected 
with  persons  and  circumstances. 

The  following  phrases,  even  when  considered  in  themselves, 
show  that  participles  include  the  idea  of  time  :  "  The  letter  being 
written,  or  having  been  written ;"  "  Charles  being  wmting,  having 
written,  or  having  been  writing,'*''  But  when  arranged  in  an  entire 
sentence,  which  they  must  be  to  make  a  complete  sense,  they  show 
it  still  more  evidently:  as,  "  Charles  ^avtng-  wmtten  the  letter,  seal- 
ed and  despatched  it." — The  participle  does  indeed  associate  with 
different  tenses  of  the  verb :  as,  "I  am  writing,"  "  I  was  writing," 
♦*  I  shall  be  writing :"  but  this  forms  no  just  objection  to  its  denoting 
time.  If  the  time  of  it  is  often  relative  time,  this  circumstance, 
far  from  disproving,  supports  our  position.f  ^ee  observations  un- 
der Rule  13  of  Syntax, 

Participles  sometimes  perform  the  office  of  substantives,  and 

*  When  this  participle  is  joined  to  the  verb  io  have^  it  is  called  perftct;  when 
il  is  joined  to  the  verb  to  6e,  or  understood  with  it,  it  is  denominated  pctssive. 

f  From  the  very  nature  of  time,  an  action  may  be  present  now,  it  may  havt 
been  present  formerly  ^  or  it  may  be  present  at  some  future  period — yet  who  ever 
•upposed,  that  tlie  present  of  the  indicative  denotes  no  time  ? 

Encyclopedia  Britannica, 


ETYMOLOGY.  5:; 

are  used  as  such  ;  as  in  the  followi.ig  instances:  "The  begii> 
ning ;"  "a  good  understanding;''^  "excellent  writing  ;^^  *^  The 
chancellor's  being  attached  to  the  king  secured  his  crown:'* 
•*  The  general's  haviicg  failed  in  this  enterprise  occasioned  his 
disgrace ;"  "  John's  having  been  ivrlling  a  long  time  had  weiried 
him." 

That  the  words  in  italics  of  the  three  latter  examples,  perform 
the  office  of  suhstantives,  and  may  be  considered  as  such,  will  be 
evident,  if  we  reflect,  that  the  first  of  them  has  exactly  the  same 
meaning  and  construction  as,  "  Tlie  chancellor's  attachment  to 
the  king  secured  his  crown  ;'•  and  that  the  other  examples  will 
bear  a  sin^ilar  construction.  The  words,  being  attached,  govern 
the  word  chancellor'^s  in  the  possessive  case,  in  the  one  instance,  as 
clearly  as  attachment  governs  it  in  that  case,  in  the  other :  and 
it  is  only  substantives,  or  words  and  phrases  which  operate  as 
substantives,  that  govern  the  genitive  or  possessive  case. 

The  following  sentence  is  not  precisely  the  same  as  the  above, 
cither  in  sense  or  construction,  though,  except  the  genitive  case, 
the  words  are  the  same ;  "  The  chancellor,  being  attached  to  the 
king,  secured  his  crown."  In  the  former,  the  words,  being  at- 
iached,  form  the  nominative  case  to  the  verb,  and  are  stated  as 
the  cause  of  the  effect;  in  the  latter,  they  are  not  the  nominative 
•case,  and  make  only  a  circumstance  to  chancellory  which  is  the 
|)roper  nominative.  It  may  not  be  improper  to  add  another 
form  of  the  sentence,  by  which  the  learner  may  better  under- 
stand the  peculiar  nature  and  form  of  each  of  these  modes  of  ex- 
pression :  "  The  chancellor  being  attached  to  the  king,  his  crown 
Was  secured."  This  constitutes  what  is  properly  called,  the 
Case  Absolute. 

SECTION  IV.     Remarks  on  the  Potential  Mood. 

That  the  Potential  Mood  should  be  separated  from  the  subjunc- 
tive, is  evident,  from  the  intricacy  and  confusion  which  are  pro- 
duced by  their  being  blended  together,  and  from  the  distinct  na- 
ture of  the  two  moods ;  the  former  of  which  may  be  expressed 
without  any  condition,  supposition,  &c.  as  will  appear  from  the 
following  instances :  "  They  might  have  done  better  ;"  "  We  may 
always  act  uprightly  ;"  "  He  was  generous,  and  would  not  take 
revenge  ;"  "  We  should  resist  the  allurements  of  vice ;"  "  I  could 
ormerly  indulge  myself  in  things,  of  which  I  cannot  now  think 
but  with  pain." 

Some  grammarians  have  supposed  that  the  Potential  Mood,  as 
distinguished  above  from  the  Subjunctive,  coincides  with  the  Indi- 
cative. But  as  the  latter  "  simply  indicates  or  declares  a  thing," 
it  is  manifest  that  the  former,  which  modifies  the  declaration, 
and  introduces  an  idea  materially  distinct  from  it,  must  be  con- 
siderably different.  "  I  can  walk,"  "  I  should  walk,"  appear  to 
be  60  essentially  distinct  from  the  simplicity  of,  "  I  walk,"  "I 
walked,"  as  to  warrant  a  correspondent  distinction  of  moods. 
Tho  Imperative  and  Infinitive  Moods,  which  are  allowed  to  re- 


56  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 


M 


,tain  their  rank,  do  not  appear  to  contain  such  strong  marks 
discrimination  from  the  Indicatfve,  as  are  found  in  the  Potent 
Mood. 

There  are  other  writers  on  this  subject,  who  exclude  the  Po- 
tential Mood  from  their  division,  because  it  is  formed,  not  by 
varying  the  principal  verb,  but  by  means  of  the  auxiliary  verbH 
may,  can,  might,  could,  would,  &c. ;  but  if  we  recollect,  that  mooda 
are  used  "  to  signify  various  intentions  of  the  mind,  and  various 
modifications  and  circumstances  of  action,"  we  shall  perceive 
that  those  auxiharies,  far  from  interfering  with  this  design,  do,  in 
the  clearest  manner,  support  and  exemplify  it.  On  the  reason 
alleged  by  these  ;vrkers,  the  greater  part  of  the  Indicative  Mood 
must  also  be  excluded  ;  as  but  a  small  part  of  it  is  conjugated 
without  auxiliaries.  The  Subjunctive  too,  will  fare  no  better; 
since  it  so  nearly  resembles  the  Indicative,  and  is  formed  by 
means  of  conjunctions,  expressed  or  understood,  which  do  not 
.  more  effectually  show  the  varied  intentions  of  the  mind,  than  the 
auxiliaries  do  which  are  used  to  form  the  Potential  Mood. 

Some  writers  have  given  our  moods  a  much  greater  extent 
than  we  have  assigned  to  them.  They  assert  that  the  English 
language  may  be  said,  without  any  great  impropriety,  to  have  as 
many  moods  as  it  has  auxiliary  verbs  ;  and  they  allege,  in  sup- 
port of  their  opinion,  that  the  compound  expression  which  they 
help  to  form,  point  out  those  various  dispositions  and  actions, 
which,  in  other  languages,  are  expressed  by  moods.  This  would 
be  to  multiply  the  moods  without  advantage.  It  is,  however, 
certain,  that  the  conjugation  or  variation  of  verbs,  in  tiie  Eng- 
lish language,  is  effecied,  almost  entirely,  by  the  means  of  auxilia- 
ries. We  must,  therefore,  accommodate  ourselves  to  this  circum- 
stance ;  and  do  that  by  their  assistance,  which  has  been  done  in 
the  learned  languages,  (a  few  instances  to  the  contrary  except- 
ed,) in  another  manner,  namely,  by  varying  the  form  of  the  verb 
itself.  At  the  same  time,  it  is  necessary  to  set  proper  bounds  to 
this  business,  so  as  not  to  occasion  obscurity  and  perplexity, 
when  we  mean  to  be  simple  and  perspicuous.  Instead,  there- 
fore, of  making  a  separate  mood  for  every  auxiliary  verb,  and  in- 
troducing moods  Interrogative,  Oplaiive,  Promissive,  Hortative, 
Precative,  &c.  we  have  exhibited  such  only  as  are  obviously  dis- 
tinct ;  and  which,  whilst  they  are  calculated  to  unfold  and  dis- 
play the  subject  intelligibly  to  the  learner,  seem  to  be  sufficient, 
and  not  more  than  sufficient,  to  answer  all  the  purposes  for 
which  moods  were  introduced. 

From  grammarians  who  form  their  ideas,  and  make  their  de- 
cisions, respecting  this  part  of  English  Grammar  on  the  princi- 
ples and  construction  of  languages,  which  in  these  points,  do  not 
suit  the  peculiar  nature  of  our  own,  but  differ  considerably  from 
it,  we  may  naturally  expect  grammatical  schemes  that  are  n 
very  perspicuous  nor  perfectly  consistent,  a||d  which  wiU 
more  to  perplex  than  inform  the  learner.  See  pages  59 — i 
72—74.    76—78.    138—140. 


ly  from 
ire  not 


ETYMOLOGY.  57 

SECTION  V.   Of  the  Tenses. 

Tense,  being  the  distinction  of  time,  might  seem  to  ad- 
mit only  of  the  present,  past,  and  future ;  but  to  mark  it 
»nore  accurately,  it  is  made  to  consist  of  six  variations,  viz 
the  PRESENT,  the  imperfect,  the  perfect,  the  pluperfect, 
and  the  first  and  second  future  tenses. 

The  Present  Tense  represents  an  action  or  event,  as 
passing  at  the  time  in  which  it  is  mentioned  :  as,  "  I  rule  ; 
1  am  ruled  ;  I  think;  I  fear." 

The  present  tense  likewise  expresses  a  character,  quality,  &c. 
at  present  existing :  as,  "  He  is  an  able  man  ;"  "  she  is  an  amia- 
ble woman."  It  is  also  used  in  speaking  of  actions  continued, 
with  occasional  intermissions,  to  the  present  time  ;  as,  "  He  fre- 
quently rides  ;"  "  He  walks  out  every  morning  ;"  "He  goes  into 
the  country  every  summer."  We  sometimes  apply  this  tense 
even  to  persons  long  since  dead :  as,  "  Seneca  reasons  and  mo- 
ralizes well ;"  "Job  speaks  feelingly  of  his  afflictions." 

The  present  tense,  preceded  by  the  words,  when^  he/ore,  afier^ 
as  soon  as,  &c.  is  sometimes  used  to  point  out  the  relative  time 
of  a  future  action :  as,  "  JVhen  he  arrives  he  will  hear  the  news  ;" 
"  He  will  hear  the  news  before  he  arrives,  or  a^  soon  as  he  ar- 
rives, or,  at  farthest,  soon  after  he  arrives  ;"  "  The  more  she  im- 
proves, the  more  amiable  she  will  be." 

In  animated  historical  narrations,  this  tense  is  sometimes  sub- 
stituted for  the  imperfect  tense :  as,  "  He  enters  the  territory  of 
the  peaceable  inhabitants  ;  he  fights  and  conquers,  takes  an  im- 
mense booty,  which  he  divides  amongst  his  soldiers,  and  returns 
home  to  enjoy  an  empty  triuuiph." 

The  Imperfect  Tense  represents  the  action  or  event, 
either  as  past  and  finished,  or  as  remaining  unfinished  at  a 
certain  time  past:  as,  "  I  loved  her  for  her  modesty  and 
virtue  ;"  "  They  were  travelling  post  when  he  met  them.*' 

The  Perfect  Tense  not  only  refers  to  what  is  past,  hut 
also  conveys  an  allusion  to  the  present  time  :  as,  "  1  have 
finished  my  letter  ;"  **  1  have  seen  the  person  that  was  re- 
commended to  me." 

In  the  former  example,  it  is  signified  that  the  finishing  of  tha 
letter,  though  past,  was  at  a  period  immediately,  or  very  nearly, 
preceding  the  present  time.  In  the  latter  instance,  it  is  uncer- 
tain whether  the  person  mentioned  was  seen  by  the  speaker  a 
long  or  short  time  before.  The  meaning  is,  "  I  have  seen  him 
iome  time  in  the  course  of  a  period  which  includes,  or  comes  to, 
the  present  time."  When  the  j>articuia:  time  of  any  occur* 
rence  is  specified,  as  prior  to  llie  present  time,  this  tense  is  not 
used:  for  it  would  be  iniproj)er  to  say,  "  J  have  seen  him  yester- 
day ;"  or,"  I  have  finished  my  work  ]a?t  week  "     In  these  casea 


68  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR, 

the  imperfect  is  necessary  :  as,  "  I  saw  him  yesterday  ;"  "  1 
finished  my  work  last  week."  But  when  we  speak  indefinitely 
of  any  thing  past,  as  hap{)ening  or  not  happening  in  the  day, 
year,  or  age,  in  which  we  jnention  it,  the  perfect  must  be  em- 
ployed :  asj  "  I  have  been  there  this  morning  ;"  "  I  have  travelled 
much  this  year :"  "  We  have  escaped  many  dangers  through 
life."  In  referring,  however,  to  such  a  division  of  the  day  as  is 
past  before  the  time  of  our  speaking,  we  use  the  imperfect:  as, 
'*  They  came  home  early  this  morning ;"  "  He  was  with  them  at 
three  o'clock  this  afternoon." 

The  perfect  tense,  and  the  imperfect  tense,  both  denote  a 
thing  that  is  past ;  but  the  former  denotes  it  in  such  a  manner, 
that  there  is  still  actually  remaining  some  part  of  the  time  to. 
slide  away,  wherein  we  declare  the  thing  has  been  done ;  where- 
as the  imperfect  denotes  the  thing  or  action  past,  in  such  a  man- 
ner, that  nothing  remains  of  that  time  in  which  it  was  done. 
If  we  speak  of  the  present  century,  we  say,  "  Philosophers  have 
made  great  discoveries  in  the  present  century :"  but  if  we  speak 
of  the  last  century,  we  say,  "Philosophers  made  great  disco- 
veries in  the  last  century."  "  He  has  been  much  afflicted  this 
year ;"  "  I  have  this  week  read  the  king's  proclamation  ;"  "  I  have 
heard  great  news  this  morning :"  in  these  instances,  "  He  has 
been,*'  "  I  have  read,^^  and  ^^heard,^\  denote  things  that  are  past ; 
but  they  occurred  in  this  year,  in  this  week,  and  to-day  ;  and  still 
there  remains  a  part  of  this  year,  week,  and  day,  whereof  I  speak» 

In  general,  the  perfect  tense  may  be  applied  wherever  the  ac- 
tion is  connected  with  the  present  time,  by  the  actual  existence, 
either  of  the  author,  or  of  the  work,  though  it  may  have  been 
performed  many  centuries  ago  ;  but  if  neither  the  author  nor  the 
work  now  remains,  it  cannot  be  used.  We  may  say,  "  Cicero 
has  laritten  orations ;"  but  we  cannot  say,  Cicero  has  tvritten 
poems ;"  because  the  orations  are  in  being,  but  the  poems  are 
lost.  Speaking  of  priests  in  general,  we  may  say,  "  They  have 
in  all  ages  claimed  great  powers  ;"  because  the  general  order  of 
the  priesthood  still  exists:  but  if  we  speak  of  the  Druids,  as  any 
particular  order  of  priests,  which  does  not  now  exist,  we  cannot 
use  this  tense.  We  cannot  say,  "  The  Druid  priests  have  claimed 
great  powers,"  but  must  say,  *•  The  Druid  priests  claimed  great 
powers  ;"  because  that  order  is  now  totally  extinct.  See  Pick- 
bourn  on  the  English  Verb, 

The  Pluperfect  Tense  represents  a  thing,  not  only  as 
past,  but  also  as  prior  to  some  other  point  of  time  specified 
in  the  sentence :  as,  "I  had  finished  my  letter  before  he  ar- 
rived." 

The  First  Future  Tense  represents  the  action  as  yet  to 
come,  either  with  or  without  respect  to  the  precise  time  : 
as,  **  The  sun  will  rise  to-morrow  ;"  "  I  shall  see  them  again," 

The  Second  Future  intimates  tliat  the  action  will  be  fully 


ETY.IIOLOGY.  69 

accomplished,  at  or  before  the  time  of  another  future  ac- 
tion or  event :  as,  "  I  shall  have  dined  at  one  o'clock  ;** 
'*  The  two  houses  will  have  finished  their  business,  when  the 
king  comes  to  prorogue  them."* 

It  is  to  be  observed,  tliat  in  the  subjunctive  mood,  the  event 
being  spoken  of  under  a  condition  or  supposition,  or  in  the  form 
of  a  wish,  and  therefore  as  doubtful  and  contingent,  the  verb 
itself  in  the  present,  and  the  auxiliary  both  of  the  present  and 
past  imperfect  times,  often  carry  w^ith  them  somewhat  of  a 
future  sense :  as,  "  If  he  come  to-morrow,  I  may  speak  to  him  ;" 
"  If  he  should,  or  would  come  to-morrow,  1  might,  would,  could, 
or  should  speak  to  him."  Observe  also,  that  the  auxiliary  should 
and  would,  in  the  i  nperfect  times,  are  used  to  express  the  present 
and  future  as  well^as  the  past :  as,  "  It  is  rny  desire,  that  he  should, 
or  would,  come  now,  or  to-morrow  ;"  as  well  as,  "  It  was  ray 
desire,  that  he  should  or  v/ould  come  yesterday."  So  that  in 
this  mood  the  precise  time  of  the  verb  is  very  much  determined 
by  the  nature  and  drift  of  the  sentence. 

The  present,  past,  and  future  tenses,  may  be  used  either  defi- 
nitely or  indejinitely^  both  with  respect  to  time  and  action.  When 
they  denote  customs  or  habits,  and  not  individual  acts,  they  are 
applied  indefinitely:  as,  "  Virtue  ^romo<c5  happiness;"  "The 
old  Romans  governed  by  benefits  more  than  by  fear ;"  "  I  shall 
hereafter  employ  my  time  more  usefully."  In  these  examples, 
the  words,  promotes,  governed,  and  shall  employ,  are  used  indefi- 
nitely, both  in  regard  to  action  and  time  ;  for  they  are  not  con- 
fined to  individual  actions,  nor  to  any  precise  points  of  present, 
past,  or  future  time.  When  they  are  applied  to  signify  particular 
actions,  and  to  ascertain  the  precise  pomts  of  time  to  which  they 
are  confined,  they  are  used  definitely ;  as  in  the  following  in- 
stances. "  My  brother  is  tvnting ;"  "  He  built  the  house  last 
summer,  but  did  not  inhabit  it  till  yesterday."  "  He  unll  writ% 
another  letter  to-morrow." 

The  difierent  tenses  also  represent  an  action  as  complete  or 
perfect,  or  as  incomplete  or  imperfect.  In  the  phrases,  "1  am 
writing,"  "I  was  writing,"  "I  shall  be  writing,"  imperfect, 
unfinished  actions  are  signified.  But  the  following  examples, 
*'  I  wrote,"  "  I  have  written,"  "  I  had  written,"  "  I  shall  have 
written,"  all  denote  complete  perfect  action. 

From  the  preceding  representation  of  the  diflferent  tenses,  it 
appears,  that  each  of  them  has  its  distinct  and  peculiar  province  ; 
and  that  though  some  of  them  may  sometimes  be  used  promis- 
cuously, or  substituted  one  for  another,  in  cases  where  great 
accuracy  is  not  required,  yet  there  is  a  real  and  essential  diflfer- 
ence  in  their  meaning. — It  is  also  evident,  that  the  English 
language  contains  the  six  tenses  which  we  have  enumerated. 
Grammarians  who  limit  the  number  to  two,  or  at  most  to  three, 
namely,  the  present,  the  imperfect,  and  the  future,  do  not  reflect 

♦  See  an  account  of  tlie  simple  and  compound  tenses,  at  page  71. 


60  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR, 

that  the  English  verb  is  mostl}^  composed  of  principal  and  riiix- 
iliary  ;  and  that  these  several  parts  constitute  one  verb.  Either 
the  Enghsh  language  has  no  regular  future  tense,  or  its  future 
is  composed  of  the  auxiliary  and  the  principal  verb.  If  the 
latter  be  admitted,  then  the  auxilirjry  and  principal  united,  con- 
stitute a  tense,  in  one  instance;  and,  from  reason  and  analogy, 
may  doubtless  do  so,  in  others,  in  which  minuter  divisions  of 
time  are  necessary,  or  useful.  What  reason  can  be  assigned  for 
not  considering  this  case  as  other  cases,  in  which  a  whole  is 
regarded  as  composed  of  several  parts,  or  of  principal  and 
adjuncts?  There  is  nothing  heterogeneous  in  the  parts :  and  pre- 
cedent, analogy,  utility,  and  even  necessity,  authorize  the  union. 

In  support  of  this  opinion,  we  have  the  authority  of  eminent 
grammarians  ;  in  particular,  that  of  Dr.  Beatti>i.  "  Some  writers," 
says  the  doctor,  "  wilj  not  allow  any  thing  to  be  a  tense, 
but  what  in  one  inflected  word,  expresses  an  affirmation  with 
time;  for  that  those  parts  of  the  verb  are  not  properly  called 
tenses,  which  assume  that  appearance,  by  means  of  auxihary 
words.  At  this  rate,  we  should  have,  in  English,  two  tenses 
only,  the  present  and  the  past  in  the  active  verb,  and  in  the 
passiv^e  no  tenses  at  all.  But  this  is  a  needless  nicety ;  and,  if 
adopted,  would  introduce  confusion  into  the  grammatical  art. 
If  amaveram  be  a  tense,  why  should  not  amatus  fueram  ?  If  1 
heard  be  a  tense,  I  did  hear,  I  have  heard,  and  /  shall  hear,  must 
be  equally  entitled  to  that  appellation." 

The  proper  form  of  a  tense,  in  the  Greek  and  Latin  tongue?, 
is  certainly  that  which  it  has  in  the  grammars  of  those  languages. 
But  in  the  Greek  and  Latin  grammars,  we  uniformly  find,  that 
some  of  the  tenses  are  formed  by  variations  of  the  principal 
verb  ;  and  others,  by  the  addition  of  a  helping  verb.  It  is,  there- 
fore, indisputable,  that  the  principal  verb,  or  rather  its  participle, 
and  an  auxihary,  constitute  a  regular  tense  in  the  Greek  and 
Latin  languages.  This  point  being  established,  we  may,  doubt- 
less, apply  it  to  English  verbs  ;  and  extend  the  principle  as  far 
as  convenience,  and  the  idiom  of  our  language  require. 

If  it  should  be  said,  that,  on  the  same  ground  that  a  participle 
and  auxiliary  are  allowed  to  form  a  tense,  and  the  verb  is  to  be 
conjugated  accordingly,  the  English  noun  and  pronoun  ought  to 
be  declined  at  large,  with  articles  and  prepositions ;  we  must 
object  to  the  inference.  Such  a  mode  of  declension  is  not 
adapted  to  our  language.  This  we  think  has  been  already- 
proved.*  It  is  also  confessedly  inapplicable  to  the  learned  lan- 
guages. Where  then  is  the  grammatical  inconsistency,  or  the 
want  of  conformity  to  the  principles  of  analogy,  in  making  some 
tenses  of  the  English  verb  to  consist  of  principal  and  auxiliary 
and  the  cases  of  English  nouns,  chiefly  in  their  termination? 
The  argument  from  analogy,  instead  of  mihtating  against  us, 
appears  to  confirm  and  establish  our  position.  See  pages  55— 
56.-72—73,  74— 76.-139 --140. 


*  See  page  40. 


~J 


ETYMOLOGY.  ,  61 

We  shall  close  these  remarks  on  the  tenses,  with  a  few  ob- 
servations extracted  fron^i  the  Eivcyclop^dia  Britannica. 
They  are  worth  the  student's  attention,  as  a  part  of  them  applies, 
not  only  to  our  views  of  the  tenses,  but  to  many  other  parts  of 
the  work. — "  Harris  (by  way  of  hypothesis)  has  enumerated  no 
fewer  than  twelve  tenses.  Of  this  enumeration  we  can  by  no 
means  approve  :  for,  without  entering  into  a  minute  examina- 
tion of  it,  nothing  can  be  more  obvious,  than  that  his  inceptive 
present,  "  I  am  going  to  write,"  is  a  future  tense  ;  and  his  com 
pletive  present,  "  I  have  written,"  a  past  tense.  But,  as  was  be  • 
fore  observed  of  the  classification  of  words,  we  cannot  help 
being  of  opinion,  that,  to  take  the  tenses  as  they  are  commonly 
received,  and  endeavour  to  ascertain  their  nature  and  their  differ- 
ftnces,  is  a  much  more  useful  exercise,  as  well  as  more  proper  for 
fi  work  of  this  kind,  than  to  raise,  as  might  easily  be  raised,  new 
theories  on  the  suhject."^ 

SECTION  VI.     The  Conjugation  of  the  Auxiliary  Verbs 
TO^AVE  and  to  be. 

The  Conjugation  of  a  verb,  is  the  regular  combination 
and  arrangement  of  its  several  numbers,  persons,  moods, 
and  tenses. 

The  Conjugation  of  an  active  verb  is  styled  the  active 
VOICE  ;  and  that  of  a  passive  verb,  the  passive  voice. 

The  auxiliary-  and  active  verb  to  have,  is  conjugated  in 
he  following  manner. 

TO  HAVE. 

Indicative  Mood. 
Present.   Tense, 

Singular.  Plural. 

1.  Pers.  I  have.  1.  We  have. 

2.  Pers.  Thou  hast.  2.  Ye  or  you  have, 

3.  Per,.  He,  she,  or  it?  3    T^ey  have. 
hath  or  has.               ^  ^ 

Imperfect  Tense,^ 
Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I  had..  1.  We  had. 

2.  Thou  hadst.  2.  Ye  or  you  had. 

3.  He,  &c.  had.  3.  They  had. 

*  The  following  crilicism  affords  an  additional  support  to  the  author's  system 
of  the  Tenses,  &c. 

"  Under  the  head  of  Etymology,  the  author  of  this  grammar  jijdiciously  ad- 
heres to  the  natural  simplicity  of  the  JEnglish  language,  witliout  embarrassing  the 
learner,  with  distinctions  peculiar  to  the  Latin  tongue.  The  difficult  subject  of 
the  Tenses,  is  clearly  explained;  and  with  less  encumbrance  of  technical 
phraseology,  than  in  most  other  grammars."  Analytical  Review, 


62  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 

Perfect  Ten^e.* 
Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I  have  had.  1.  We  have  had. 

2.  Thou  hast  had.  2.  Ye  or  you  have  had. 

3.  He  has  had.  3.  They  have  had. 

Pluperfect  Tense,^ 
Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I  had  had.  1.  We  had  had. 

2.  Thou  hadst  had.  2.  Ye  or  you  had  had. 

3.  He  had  had.  3.  They  had  had. 

First  Future  Tense, 
Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I  shall  or  will  have.  1.  We  shall  or  will  have. 

2.  Thou  Shalt  or  wilt  have.  2.  Ye  or  you  shall  or  will  havt 

3.  He  shall  or  will  have.  3.  They  shall  or  will  have. 

Second  Future  Tense, 
Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I  shall  have  had.  1.  We  shall  have  had. 

2.  Thou  wilt  have  had.  2.  Ye  or  you  will  have  had, 

3.  He  will  have  had.  3.  Th»y  will  have  had. 

Imperative  Mood. 
Singular.  Plural. 

1.  Let  me  have.  1.  Let  us  have. 

2.  Have,  or  have  thou,  or  dp        2.  Have,  or  have  ye,  or  do  yo  or 

thou  have.  you  have. 

3.  Let  him  have.  3.  Let  them  have.f 

The  imperative  mood  is  not  strictly  entitled  to  three  persons. 
The  command  is  always  addressed  to  the  second  person,  not  to 
the  first  or  third.  For  when  we  say,  "  Let  me  have,"  "  Lei 
him,  or  let  them  have,"  the  meaning  and  construction  are,  do 
thou,  or  do  ye,  let  me,  him,  or  them  have.  In  philosophical 
strictness,  both  number  and  person  might  be  entirely  exclu- 
ded from  every  verb.  They  are,  in  fact,  the  properties  of  sub- 
stantives, not  a  part  of  the  essence  of  a  verb.  Even  the  name 
of  the  imperative  mood,  does  not  always  correspond  to  its 
nature  :  for  it  sometimes  petitions  as  well  as  commands.  But, 
with  respect  to  all  these  points,  the  practice  of  our  gramma- 
rians is  so  uniformly  fixed,  and  so  analogous  to  the  languages, 

*  The  terms  which  we  have  adopted,  to  designate  the»three  past  tenses,  may 
not  be  exactly  signiiicant  of  their  nature  and  distinctions.  But  as  they  are  used 
by  grammarians  in  general,  and  have  an  established  authority;  and,  especially, 
as  the  meaning  attached  to  each  of  them,  and  their  different  significations,  havo 
been  carefully  explained  ;  we  presume  that  no  solid  objection  can  be  made  to 
the  use  of  terms  so  generally  approved,  and  so  explicitly  defined.  See  pages  61 
and  62.  We  are  supported  in  these  sentiments,  by  the  authority  of  Dr.  John- 
son. See  the  first  note  in  his  "  Grammar  of  the  English  Tongue,"  prefixed  to 
his  dictionary.  If,  however,  any  teachers  should  think  it  warrantable  to  changa 
the  established  names,  they  cannot  perhaps  find  any  more  appropriate,  than  the 
terms Jirstpreterity  second  preterit  j  and  thirdpreterii. — See  the  Octavo  Grammar. 

f  If  such  sentences  should  be  rigorously  examined,  tlie  Imperative  will  ap* 
pear  to  consist  merely  in  the  word  let.    See  Parsings  p.  164. 


Etymology.  63 

ancient  and  modern,  which  our  youth  have  to  study,  that  it 
would  be  an  unwarrantable  degree  of  innovation,  to  deviate 
from  the  established  terms  and  arrangements.  See  the  advertise- 
ment at  the  end  of  the  Introduction,  page  6  ;  and  the  quotation 
from  the  Encyclopaedia  Britannica,  page  61. 
Potential  Mood. 

Present  Tense, 
Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I  may  or  can  have.  1.  We  may  or  can  have. 

2   Thou  mayst  or  canst  have.  2.  Ye  or  you  may  or  can  have. 

8.  He  may  or  can  have.  3.  They  may  or  can  have. 

Imperfect  Tense* 
Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I  might,  could,,  would,  or  1.  We  might,  could,  would,  ot 
should  have.  should  have. 

2.  Thou    mightst,    couldst,  2.  Ye  or  you  might,  could,wonld, 
wouldst,  or  shouldst  have.  or  should  have. 

3.  He  might,  could,  would,  3.  They  might,  could,  would,  or 
or  should  have.  should  have. 

Perfect  Tense, 
Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I  may  or  can  have  had.        1.  We  may  or  can  have  had. 

2.  Thou  mayst  or  canst  have      2.  Ye  or  you  may  or  can  have 
had.  -  had. 

3.  He  may  or  can  have  had.       3.  They  may  or  can  have  had. 

Pluperfect  Tense. 
Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I  might,  could,  would,  or        1.  We  might,  could,  would,  of 
should  have  had.  should  have  had. 

2.  Thou   mightst,  couldst,  ^    Ye  or  you  might,.;ould,would, 
wouldst,  or  shouldst  have  ^^  ^j^^^l^  ^J^  ^^^^ 

2.  He  might,  could,  would,        3.  They  might,  could,  would,  or 
or  should  have  had.  should  have  had.* 

Subjunctive  Mood. 

Present  Tense, 
Singular.  Plural, 

1.  If  I  have.  1.  If  we  have. 

2.  If  thou  have.f  2.  If  ye  or  you  have. 

3.  If  he  have.f  3.  If  they  havie. 

The  remaining  tenses  of  the  subjunctive  mood,  are,  in  every 
respect,  similar  to  the  correspondent  tenses  of  the  indicative 

*  Shall  and  toill^  when  they  denote  inclination,  resolution,  promise,  may  be 
considered,  as  well  as  their  relations  should  and  would^  as  belonging  to  the  po 
tential  mood.  But  as  they  genei-ally  signify  futurity,  they  have  been  appro 
priated,  as  helping  verbs,  to  the  formation  of  the  future  tenses  of  tlie  indicative 
and  subjunctive  moods. 

f  Grammarians,  in  general,  conjugate  the  present  of  the  auxiliary,  in  this 
manner.  But  we  presume  that  this  is  the  form  of  the  verb,  considered  as  a 
»rincipalf  not  as  an  auxiliary  verb.     See  page  133,  Note  5. 


64  ENGLISH  GR  VMM  All. 

mood  ;*  vvitli  the  addition  to  tlie  verlvof  a  conjunction,  expressed 
or  implied,  denoting  a  condition,  motive,  wish,  supposition,  &<! 
It  will  be  p4*oper  to  direct  the  learner  to  repeat  all  the  tenses  ot 
this  mood,  with  a  conjunction  prefixed  to  each  of  them.  See 
on  this  suV)ject,  the  observations  at  page  74  ;  and  the  notej^on  the 
nineteenth  rule  of  syntax. 

Infinitive  Mood. 
PRESENT.  To  have.  perfect.  To  have  had 


ad.     11 

J 


Pai'ticiples, 

present  or  active.       Having. 

PERFECT,  Had. 

compound  PERFECT,  Having  had. 
As  the  subjunctive  mood,  in  English,  has  no  variation,  in  tht 
form  of  the  verb,  from  the  indicative,  (except  in  the  present  tense, 
and  the  second  future  tense,  of  verbs  generally,  and  the  present 
and  imperfect  tenses  of  the  verb  to  &e,)  it  would  be  superfluous 
t4:)  conjugate  it  in  tlus  work,  through  every  tense.  But  all  the 
(jihpv  moods  and  tenses  of  the  verbs,  both  in  the  active  and 
passive  voices,  are  conjugated  at  large,  that  the  learners  tnay 
liave  no  doubts  or  misapprehensions  respecting  their  particular 
forms.  They  to  whom  the  subject  of  grammar  is  entirely  new, 
and  young  persons  especially,  are  much  more  readily  and  effect- 
unlly  instructed,  by  seeing  the  parts  of  a  subject  so  essential  as 
the  verb,  unfolded  and  spread  before  them,  in  all  their  varieties, 
than  by  being  generally  and  cursorily  informed  of  the  manner 
in  which  they  may  be  exhibited.  The  time  employed  by  the 
scholars,  in  consequence  of  this  display  of  the  verbs,  is  of  small 
moment,  compared  with  the  advantages  which  they  will  proba- 
bly derive  from  the  plan. 

It  may  nor,  however,  be  generally  proper  for  young  persons 
beginning  the  study  of  grammar,  to  commit  to  memory  all  the 
tenses  of  the  verbs.  If  the  simple  tenses,  namely,  the  present 
and  the  imperfect,  together  with  the  first  future  tevsey  should,  in 
the  first  instance,  be  committed  to  memory,  and  the  ifest  care- 
fully perused  and  explained,  the  business  will  not  be  iiediaus  to 
the  scholars,  and  their  progress  wil!  be  rendered  moie  obvious 
and  ploasing.  The  general  view  of  the  subject,  thus  acc^uired  ami 
impressed,  may  afterward  he  extended  with  ease  and  atnvantage. 
It  appears  to  be  proper,  for  the  information  of  the  learners,  to 
make  a  few  observations  in  this  place,  on  some  of  the  t«jnses,  &lc. 
The  first  is,  that,  in  the  potential  mood,  some  grammarjpus  con- 
found the  present  with  the  imperfect  tense  ;  and  the  perfect  with 
the  pluperfect.  But  that  they  are  really  distinct,  and  hnve  an 
appropriate  reference  to  time,  corres])ondent  to  the  detJMitions 
of  those  tenses,  wdl  appear  from  a  few  exam])les:  "I  wished 

*  Except  that  the  second  and  third  persons,  singular  and  plural,  oft'i'-  yecoi^ 
future  tense,  require  the  auxiliary  shall,  sfuill,  instead  oi  w'ii,  will.     l(h»«8  "  F* 
will  have  completed  the  work  by  niidsunnner,"  is  the  indicative  form  .   'i*  t  I 
subjunctive  isj  "  If  he  shaM  liave  completed  the  work  by  niidsiuiimer. 


ETYiMOLOGY.  65 

him  to  8tay,  but  he  would  not;"  "I  could  not  acconiplisli  tJie 
business  in  time  ;"  "It  was  my  direction  that  he  should  submit ;" 
"  He  was  ill,  but  I  thought  he  might  live  ;"  "  I  uiay  have  mU- 
understood  him  ;"  "  He  cannot  have  deceived  me  ;"  "  He  might  have 
finished  the  work  sooner,  but  he  could  not  have  done  it  better." — 
It  must,  however,  be  admitted,  that,  on  some  occasions,  the  aux- 
iliaries might,  could,  would,  and  should,  refer  also  to  present  and 
to  future  time.     See  page  59. 

The  next  remark  is,  that  the  auxiliary  mZZ,  in  the  first  person 
singular  and  plural  of  the  second  future  tense  ;  and  the  auxiliary 
shall^  in  the  second  and  third  persons  of  that  tense,  in  the  indica- 
tive mood,  appear  to  be  incorrectly  applied.  The  impropriety 
of  such  associations  may  be  inferred  from  a  few  examples  :  "  I 
loill  have  had  previous  notice,  whenever  the  event  happens ;" 
"  Thou  shalt  have  served  thy  apprenticeship  before  the  end  of 
the  year ;"  "  He  shall  have  completed  his  business  when  the 
messenger  arrives."  "  I  shall  ha,ve  had  ;  thou  wilt  have  served  ; 
he  will  have  completed,"  &c.  would  have  been  correct  and  ap- 
plicable. The  peculiar  import  of  these  auxiliaries,  as  explained 
in  page  69,  under  section  7,  seems  to  account  for  their  im|)ro* 
priety  in  the  applications  just  mentioned. 

Some  writers  on  grammar  object  to  the  propriety  of  admitting 
the  second  future,  in  both  the  indicative  and  subjunctive  moods  : 
but  that  this  tense  is  applicable  to  both  moods,  will  be  manifest 
from  the  following  examples ;  "  John  will  have  earned  his  wages 
the  next  new-year's  day,"  is  a  simple  declaration,  and  therefore 
in  the  indicative  mood :  "  If  he  shall  have  finished  his  work  when  . 
the  bell  rings,  he  will  be  entitled  to  the  reward,"  is  conditional 
and  contingent,  and  is  therefore  in  the  subjunctive  mood. 

We  shall  conclude  these  detached  observations,  with  one  re- 
mark which  may  be  useful  to  the  young  scholar,  namely,  that  as 
the  indicative  mood  is  converted  into  the  subjunctive,  by  the  ex- 
pression of  a  condition,  motive,  wish,  supposition,  &c.  being  su- 
peradded to  it  ;  so  the  potential  mood  may,  in  like  manner,  be 
turned  into  the  subjunctive  ;  as  will  be  seen  in  the  following 
examples  ;  "If  I  could  deceive  him,  I  should  abhor  it ;"  "  Though 
he  should  increase  in  Wealth,  he  would  not  be  charitable  ;"  "  Even 
in  prosperity  he  would  gain  no  esteem,  unless  he  should  conduct 
himself  better. 

The  auxiliary  and  neuter  verb  To  be,  is  conjugated  as 
follows ; 

TO  BE. 
Indicative  Mood. 

Present    Tense, 
Singulat  Plural. 

1.  I  am.  1.  We  are. 

2.  Thou  art.  2.  Ye  or  you  are 

3.  He,  she,  or  it  is.  3.  They  are. 


66 


ENvGILISII  GIlArJMAR. 


Imperfect  Tense. 
Plural. 

1.  We  were. 

2.  Ye  or  you  were. 

3.  They  were. 

Perfect  Tense. 
Plural. 

1.  We  have  been. 

2.  Ye  or  you  have  been. 

3.  They  have  been. 

Pluperfect   Tense. 
Plural. 

1.  We  had  been. 

2.  Ye  or  you  had  been. 

3.  They  had  been. 

First  Future  Tense. 
Plural. 
1.  We  shall  or  will  be 
Thou  shall  or  wilt  be.  2.  Ye  or  you  shall  or  will  be* 

He  shall  or  will  be.  3.  They  shall  or  will  be. 

I  Second  Future  Tense. 

Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I  shall  have  been.  1.  We  shall  have  been. 

2.  Thou  wilt  have  been.  ?..  Ye  or  you  will  have  been. 

3.  He  will  have  been.  3.  They  will  have  been. 

Imperative   Mood. 
Singular.  Plural. 

1.  Let  me  be.  1.  Let  us  be. 

2.  Be  thou  or  do  thou  be.  2.  Be  ye  or  you,  or  do  ye  be. 

3.  Let  him  be.  3.  Let  them  be. 

Potential  Mood. 

Present  Tense. 
Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I  may  or  can  be.  1.  We  may  or  can  be. 

2.  Thou  mayst  or  canst  be.  2.  Ye  or  you  may  or  can  be. 

3.  He  may  or  can  be.  3.  They  may  or  can  be. 

Imperfect  Tense. 
Singular.  '"' 


Singular. 

1.  I  was. 

2.  Thou  wast. 

3.  He  was. 

Singular. 

1.  I  have  been. 

2.  Thou  hast  been. 

3.  He  hath  or  has  been. 

Singular. 

1.  I  had  been. 

2.  Thou  hadst  been. 

3.  He  had  been. 

Singular. 
1.  I  shall  or  will  be. 
2. 
3. 


Plural, 

1.  We  might,  could,  would,  or 
should  be. 

2.  Ye  or  you  might,  could,would, 
or  should  be. 

3.  They  might,  could,  would,  or 
should  be. 

Perfect  Tense. 
Singular.  PluraL 

1.  I  may  or  can  have  been.         1.  We  may  or  can  have  been. 

2.  Thou  mayst  or  canst  have      2.  Ye  or  you  may  or  can  have 
been.  been. 

3.  He  may  or  can  have  been.      3.  They  may  or  can  have  been. 


i 


L  I  might,  could,  would,  or 

should  be. 
2.  Thou  mightst,  couldst, 

wouldst,  or  shouldst  be. 
.J.  He  might,  could,  would, 

or  should  be. 


ETYMOLOGY.  ^ 

Pluperfect  Tense, 
Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I  might,  could,  would,  or        i.  We  might,  could,  would,  or 
should  have  been.  should  have  been. 

2.  Thoumightst^  couldst,  2.  Ye  or  you  might,  could, would, 
wouldst,  or  shouldst  have  or  should  have  been. 

been. 

3.  He  might,  could,  would,        3.  They  might,  could,  would,  or 
or  should  have  been,  should  have  been. 

Subjunctive    Mood. 

Present  Tense. 
Singular.  Plural. 

I.  If  I  be.  1.  If  we  be. 

9   If  thou  be.  2.  Ifye  or  you  be. 

3.  If  he  be.  3.  If  they  be. 

Imperfect  Tense, 
Singular;  Plural. 

1.  If  I  were.  1.  If  we  were. 

2.  If  thou  wert.  2.  If  ye  or  you  were. 

3.  If  he  were.  3.  If  they  were. 

The  remaining  tenses  of  this  mood  are,  in  general,  similar  to 
the  correspondent  tenses  of  the  indicative  mood.     See  pages  64, 
73,  74,  and  the  notes  under  the  nineteenth  rule  of  Syntax. 
Infinitive  Mood. 
Present  Tense^     To  be.  Perfect.     To  have  been. 

Participles. 
Present.    Being.  Perfect.     Been. 

Compound  Perfect.  Having  been. 

SECTION  VII.  The  Auxiliarij  Verbs  conjugated  in  their  simple 
form  ;  with  observations  on  their  peculiar  nature  and  force. 
The  learner  will  perceive  that  the  preceding  auxiliary  verbs, 
to  have  and  to  be,  could  not  be  conjugated  through  all  the  moods 
and  tenses,  without  the  help  of  other  auxiliary  verbs;  namely, 
may,  can,  will,  shall,  and  their  variations.     That  auxiliary  verbs, 
in  their  simple  state,  and  unassisted  by  others,  are  of  a  very 
limited  extent ;  and  that  they  are  chiefly  useful,  in  the  aid  which 
they  afford  in  conjugating  the  principal  verbs  ;  will  clearly  ap- 
pear to  the  scholar,  by  a  distinct  conjugation  of  each  of  them, 
uncombined  with  any  other.     They  are  exhibited  for  his  inspec* 
lion  ;  not  to  be  committed  to  memory. 
TO  HAVE. 
Present  Tense. 
Sing.  1.  I  have.  2.  Thou  hast.  3.  He  hath  or  hag. 

Plvr.  1.  We  have.    2.  Ye^ or  you  have.     3.  They  have. 

Imperfect  Tense. 
Sing.  1.  I  had.  2.  Thou  hadst.  3.  He  had. 

Plur.  1.  We  had.       2.  Ye  or  you  had.       3.  They  had. 
Perfect.    I  have  had,  &c.  Pluperfect,    I  had  had,  &C» 


63 

ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 

Present, 

Participles. 
Having.                Perfect,    Had.           '^ 

TO  BE. 

m 

Present  Tense, 

m 

Sing, 

1. 

I  am. 

2.  Thou  art. 

3.  He  is.             ,H 

Plur, 

I. 

We  are. 

'  2.  Ye  or  you  are. 

3.  They  are.       S 

Sing. 

1. 

I  was. 

Imperfect  Tense, 
2.  Thou  wast. 

3.  He  was.          ^ 

Plur. 

1. 

We  were. 

2.  Ye  or  you  were. 

3.  They  were. 

Present, 

Participles. 
Being.                Perfect,    Been. 

SHALL. 

Present  Tense, 

Sing, 

1. 

I  shall.* 

2.  Thou  shalt. 

3.  He  shall. 

Plur, 

1. 

We  shall. 

2.  Ye  or  you  shall. 

3.  They  shall. 

Sing, 

1. 

I  should. 

Imperfect  Tense, 
2.  Thou  shouldst. 

3.  He  should. 

Plur, 

1. 

We  should.  2.  Ye  or  you  should 

.  3.  They  should 

WILL. 

• 

Present  Tense, 

Sing, 

1. 

I  will. 

2.  Thou  wilt. 

3.  He  will. 

Plur, 

1. 

We  will. 

2.  Ye  or  you  will. 

3.  They  will. 

Sing. 

1. 

I  would. 

Imperfezt  Tense, 
2.  Thou  wouldst. 

3.  He  would. 

Plur, 

1. 

We  would, 

,  2.  Ye  or  you  would 
MAY. 

Present  Tense, 

.  3.  They  would. 

Sing, 
Plur, 

1. 
1. 

I  may. 
We  may 

2.  Thou  may  St. 
2.  Ye  or  you  may. 

3.  He  may. 
3.  They  may. 

Sing, 
Plur, 

1. 
1. 

I  might. 
We  might, 

Imperfect  Tense, 
2.  Thou  mightst. 
,  2.  Ye  or  you  might. 

CAN. 

Present  Tense, 

3.  He  might. 
3.  They  might. 

Sing, 

1. 

I  can. 

2.  Thou  canst. 

3.  He  can. 

Plur, 

1. 

We  can. 

2.  Ye  or  you  can. 

3.  They  can. 

Sing, 

1. 

I  could. 

Imperfect  Tense, 
2.  Thou  couldst. 

3.  He  could. 

Plur. 

1. 

We  could. 

2.  Ye  or  you  could. 
TO  DO. 

Present  Tense, 

3.  They  could. 

Sing, 

1, 

,  I  do. 

2.  Thou  dost. 

3.  He  doth  or  does 

Plur, 

1. 

We  do. 

2.  Ye  or  you  do. 

3.  They  do. 

*  Shall  i3  here  properl}'  used  in  the  present  tense,  having  the  same  analo*' 
to  should  thai  can  has  to  coidr/^  may  to  might,  and  will  to  would. 


.      ETYMOLOOY.  m 

Imperfect  Tense, 
Sing.  1.  I  did.  2.  Thou  didst.  3.  He  did. 

Plur.  1.  We  did.       2.  Ye  or  you  did.       3.  They  did. 

Participles, 
Present  Doing.  Perfect.  Done. 

The  verbs  have,  he,  will,  and  do,  when  they  are  unconnected 
with  a  principal  verb,  expressed  or  understood,  are  not  auxilia- 
ries, but  principal  verbs :  as, ''  We  have  enough ;"  "  I  am  grateful ;" 
"  He  wills  it  to  be  so  ;"  "  They  do  as  they  please."  In  this  view, 
they  also  have  their  auxiliaries :  as,  "  I  shall  have  enough  ;"  "  I 
will  be  gratefid,"  &c. 

The  peculiar  force  of  the  several  auxiliaries  will  appear  from 
the  following  account  of  them.  ♦ 

Do  and  did  mark  the  action  itself,  or  the  time  of  it,  with  great- 
er energy  and  positiveness :  as,  "  I  do  speak  truth.;"  "  I  did 
respect  him;"  "Here  am  I, /or  thou  didst  caAl  me."  They  are 
of  great  use  in  negative  sentences r  as,  "  I  do  not  fear;"  " I  did 
Kot  write."  They  are  almost  universally  employed  in  asking 
questions :  as,  "  Does  he  learn  ?"  "  Did  he  not  write  ?"  They 
sometimes  also  supply  tlie  place  of  another  verb,  and  make  the 
repetition  of  it  in  the  same,  or  a  subsequent  sentence,  unneces- 
sary: as,  "You  attend  not  to  your  studies  as  he  does  ;^^  (i.  e.  as  he 
attends,  Slc,^  "  I  shall  come  if  I  can ;  but  if  I  c^  not,  please  to  ex- 
cuse me  ;"  (i.  e.  if  I  come  not.) 

Let  not  only  expresses  permission,  but  entreating,  exhorting, 
commanding:  as,  "Let  us  know  the  truth  ;"  "  Let  me  die  the 
death  of  the  righteous ;"  "  Let  not  thy  heart  be  too  much  elated 
with  success ;"  "  Let  thy  inclination  submit  to  thy  duty." 

May  and  might  express  the  possibiHty  or  liberty  of  doing  a 
thing;  can  and  could,  the  power:  as,  "  It  may  rain ;"  "I  may 
write  or  read;"  "He  might  have  improved  more  than  he  has;" 
**  He  can  write  much  better  than  he  could  last  year." 

Must  is  sometimes  called  in  for  a  helper,  and  denotes  necessi'* 
ty ;  as,  "  We  must  speak  the  truth  whenever  we  do  speak,  a?jd 
we  must  not  prevaricate." 

Will,  in  the  first  person  singular  and  plural,  intimates  resolu- 
tion and  promising ;  in  the  second  and  third  person,  only  foretells: 
as,  "  I  will  reward  the  good,  and  will  punish  the  wicked ;"  "We 
will  remember  benefits,  and  be  grateful ;"  "  Thou  wilt,  or  he 
will,  repent  of  that  folly;"  "You  or  they  will  have  a  pleasant 
A^alk." 

Shall,  on  the  contrary,  in  the  first  person,  simply  foretells  ;  in 
•he  second  and  third  persons,  promises,  commands,  or  threatens : 
ws, "  I  shall  go  abroad ;"  "We  shall  dine  at  home  ;"  "  Thon  shalt, 
^r  you  shall,  inherit  the  land  :"  "  Ye  shall  do  justice,  and  love 
mercy ;"  "  They  shall  account  for  their  misconduct."  The  fol- 
lowing passage  is  not  translated  according  to  the  distinct  and 
proper  meanings  of  the  words  shall  and  will:  "Surely  goodngss 
and  mercy  sliali  follow  me  all  the  days  of  my  life ;  and  I  will 


70  EXGLISII   GRAlvlAlAn. 

4hveil  in  tlje  liouse  of'tliu  Lord  i'or  ever;"  ii  ou^Jii    to  In*,  "  'ft 
follow  nic,"  and  ^^i  shall  dwell." — Tlie  Ibrcfgiiei-  w  l7s>,!i:*  it  is  3«hiJ 
fell  into  the  Tliames,  tiiid  cried  out;  "I  inli  be  drowned,  i.ojsod} 
shall  help  me  ;'*  made  a  sad  mi6a|)])lication  of*  those  auxiliaries. 

These  observations  respectmg  the  inij)ort  of  the  verl)s  tvill  and 
shall,  must  be  understood  of  explicative  sentences;  for  when  the 
sentence  is  interrogative,  just  the  reverse,  for  the  most  part, 
takes  place  :  thus,  "  Ishall  go  ;  you  ivill  go  ;"  express  event  only  : 
but,  "  mZZ  you  go  ?"  imports  intention  ;  and,  "^^cr/ZI  go?*^'  refers 
to  the  will  of  another.  But,  "  He  shall  go,"  and  *'  shall  he  go  ?" 
both  imply  will ;  expressing  or  referring  to  a  command. 

When  the  verb  is  put  in  the  subjunctive  mood,  the  meaning 
of  these  auxiharies  likewise  undergoes  some  alteration  ;  as  the 
earner*  will  readily  perceive  by  a  few  examples:  ''He  shall  pro- 
ceed" "  If  he  shall  proceed  ;"  "  You  shall  consent,"  "  If  you  shall 
consent."  These  auxiliaries  are  sometimes  interchanged,  in  the 
indicative  and  subjunctive  moods,  to^onvey  the  same  meaning  of 
the  auxiliary  :  as, "  He  will  not  return,"  "  If  he  shall  not  return ;" 
'*He  shaU  not  return,"  "  If  he  urill  not  return." 

Would,  primarily  denotes  inclination  of  will ;  and  should,  obli- 
gation :  but  they  both  vary  their  import,  and  are  often  used  to 
express  simple  event. 

SECTION  VIII.     The  Conjugation  of  Regular  Verbs 

ACTIVE. 

Verbs  Active  are  called  Regular,  when  they  form  then 
imperfect  tense  of  the  indicative  mood,  and  their  perfect 
participle,  by  adding  to  the  verb  ed,  or  d  only  when  the  verb 
ends  in  e  :  as. 

Present.  Imperfect.  Perf.  Particip. 

I  favour.  I  favoured.  Favoured. 

I  love.  I  loved.  Loved. 

A  Regular  Active  Verb  is  conjugated  in  the  followmg 
manner 

TO  LOVE. 
Indicative  Mood. 
Present  Tense, 
Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I  love.*  1.  We  love. 

2.  Thou  lovest.  2.  Ye  or  you  love. 

3.  He  she,  or  it,  loveth,?  3^  r^^       ,^^^^ 
or  loves,  J  -^ 

Imperfect  Tense. 
Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I  loved.  1.  We  loved. 

2.  Thou  lovedst.  2.  Ye  or  vou  loved. 

3.  He  loved. 3.  Tliey  loved. «.,.-.,«^ 

♦  In  the  present  and  imperfect  tenses,  we  use  a  diflferentform  of  the  verb, 

vfhen  we  mean  to  express  energy  and  positiveness :  as,  "  I  do  love  \  thou  4ost 
ioTe ;  he  doss  love ;  I  did  love ;  tiiou  didst  love  \  he  did  love.* 


ETYMOLOGY.  Tl 

Pe^'fecl  Tense. 

Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I  have  loved.  1.  We  have  loved. 

2.  Thou  hast  loved.  2.  Ye  or  you  have  loved. 
3    He  hath  or  has  loved.  3.  They  have  loved. 

Pluperfect  Tense. 
Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I  had  loved.  1.  We  had  loved. 

^.  Thou  hadst  loved.  ^.  Ye  or  you  had  loved 

3.  He  hati  loved.  3.  They  had  loved. 

First  Future  Tense, 
Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I  shall  m'  ^^^ll  love.  1.  We  shall  or  will  love. 

2.  Thou  shalt  or  wilt  love.    ^.  Ye  or  you  shall  or  will  lov€. 

3.  He  shall  or  will  love.         3.  They  shall  or  will  love. 

Second  Future  Tense, 

Singular.  Plural. 

1.  1  shall  have  loved^  1.  We  shall  have  loved. 

2.  Thou  wilt  have  loved.  2.  Ye  or  you  will  have  loved 
8.  He  will  have  loved.  3.  They  will  have  loved. 

Those  tenses  are  called  simple  tenses,  which  are  formed  of  the 
jnincipal,  without  ar»  auxiliary  verb  :  as,  "  I  love,  I  loved."  The 
oom[)ound  tenses  are  such  as  cannot  be  formed  without  an  aux- 
iliary verb  :  as,  "  I  have  loved ;  I  had  loved  ;  I  shall  or  wUl  love; 
I  may  love  ;  I  may  he  loved  ;  I  may  have  been  loved ;"  &c.  These 
compounds  are,  however,  to  be  considered  as  only  different  forms 
of  the  same  verb. 

Imperative  Mood. 
Singular.  Plural. 

1.  Let  me  love.  1.  Let  us  love. 

2.  Love,  w  love  thou,  or     2.  Love,  or  love  ye  or  you,  or 

do  thou  love.  do  ye  love. 

3    Let  him  love.  3.  Let  them  love. 

Potential  Mood. 
Present  Tense, 
Singular  Plural, 

1.  I  may  or  can  love.  1.  We  may  or  can  love. 

2.  Thou  mayst  or  canst  love.        2.  Ye  or  you  may  or  can  love* 
8.  He  may  or  can  love.  3.  They  may  <w*  can  love. 

Imperfect  Tense, 
Singular.  Plural. 

L  I  might,  could,  would,  or  1.  We  might,  could,  would,  or 

should  love.  should  love. 

2.  Thou    mightst,    couldst,  2.  Ye  or  you  might,  could,  would, 

wouldst,  or  shouldst  love.  or  should  love. 

8.  He  might,  could,  would,  3.  They  mighty  could,  would,  or 
or  should  love.  should  love. 


72  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR.  1| 

Perfect  Tense, 
Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I  may  or  can  have  loved.         1.  We  may  or  can  have  loved. 

2.  Thou  mayst  or  canst  have        2.  Ye  or  you  may  or  can  have 
loved.  loved. 

3.  He  may  or  can  have  loved.     3.  They  may  or  can  have  loved. 

Pluperfect  Tense. 
Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I  might,  could,  would,  or        1.  We   might,  could,   would,  09 
should  have  loved.  should  have  loved. 

2.  Thou    mightst,   couldst,         ^    Ye  or  you  might,  could,would, 
wouldst,  or  shouldst  have  ^^  ^^J^^^  ^^^^^  ^^^^^^ 

loved. 

3.  He  might,  could,  would,        3.  They  might,  could,  would,  Of 
or  should  have  loved.  should  have  loved 

Subjunctive   Mood. 
Present  Tense ^ 
Singular.  Plural 

1.  If  I  love.  1.  If  we  love. 

2.  If  thou  love.  2.  If  ye  or  you  love. 

3.  If  he  love.  3.  If  they  love. 

The  remaining  tenses  of  this  mood,  are,  in  general,  simtlsir 
to  the  correspondent  tenses  of  the  indicative  mood.  See  pag& 
64,  and  page  73. 

It  may  be  of  use  to  the  scholar,  to  remark,  in  this  place,  that 
though  only  the  conjunction  if  is  affixed  to  the  verb,  any  otlier 
conjunction  proper  for  the  subjunctive  mood,  may,  with  equal 
propriety,  be  occasionally  annexed.  The  instance  given  is  sufli- 
cient  to  explain  the  subject :  more  would  be  tedious,  and  tend  to 
embarrass  the  learner. 

Infinitive  Mood. 
Present.    To  love.  Perfect.     To  have  loved. 

Participles. 
Present.     Loving.  Perfect.     Loved. 

Compound  Perfect.  Having  loved. 

The  active  verb  may  be  conjugated  differently,  by  adding  its 
present  or  active  participle  to  the  auxiliary  verb  to  fee,  through 
all  its  moods  and  tenses ;  as,  instead  of  "I  teach,  thou  teachest, 
he  teaches,"  &c. ;  we  may  say,  "  I  am  teaching,  thou  art  teach- 
ing, he  is  teaching,"  &c. :  and  instead  of"  I  taught,"  &c.  "  I  was 
teaching,"  &c.  and  so  on,  through  all  the  variations  of  the  aux- 
iliary. This  mode  of  conjugation  has,  on  particular  occasions, 
a  peculiar  propriety  ;  and  contributes  to  the  harmony  and  pre- 
cision of  the  language.  These  forms  of  expression  are  adapted 
to  particular  acts,  not  to  general  habits,  or  affections  of  the  mind. 
They  are  very  frequently  applied  to  neuter  verbs ;  as,  "  I  am 
musing  ;  he  is  sleeping."^ 

*  As  the  participle,  in  this  mode  of  conjugation,  performs  the  office  of  a  verb, 
thcougji  allthe  moods  and  tenses  \  and  as  it  implies  the  idea  of  time,  and  governs 


ETYMOLOGY.  73 

Soms  grammarians  apply,  what  is  called  the  conjunctive  termi- 
nation,  to  the  persons  of  the  principal  verh,  and  to  its  auxiliaries, 
through  all  the  tenses  of  the  suhjunctive  mood.  But  this  is  cer- 
tainly contrary  to  the  practice  of  good  writers.  Johnson  ap- 
l)lies  this  termination  to  the  present  and  perfect  tenses  only. 
Lowth  restricts  it  entirely  to  the  })resent  tense ;  and  Priestley 
confines  it  to  the  present  and  imperfect  tenses.  This  difference 
of  opinion  amongst  grammarians  of  such  eminence,  may  have 
contrihuted  to  that  diversity  of  practice,  so  ohservable  in  the 
use  of  the  subjunctive  mood.  Uniformity  in  this  point  is  highly 
desirable-  It  would  materially  assist  both  teachers  and  learn- 
ers ;  and  would  constitute  a  considerable  improvement  in  our 
language.  On  this  subject,  we  adopt  the  opinion  of  Dr.  Lowth  ; 
and  conceive  we  are  fully  warranted  by  his  authority,  and  that 
of  the  most  correct  and  elegant  writers,  in  limiting  the  con- 
junctive termination  of  the  principal  verb,  to  the  second  and 
third  person  singular  of  the  present  tense. 

Grammarians  have  not  only  differed  in  opinion,  respecting  the 
extent  and  variations  of  the  subjunctive  mood  ;  but  afew  of  them 
have  even  doubted  the  existence  of  such  a  mood  in  the  Eng- 
lish language.  These  writers  assert,  that  the  verb  has  no  vari- 
ation from  the  indicative  ;  and  that  a  conjunction  added  to  the 
verb,  gives  it  no  title  to  become  a  distinct  mood  ;  or,  at  most, 
no  better  than  it  would  have,  if  any  other  particle  were  joined 
to  it.  To  these  observations  it  may  be  replied  ;  1st.  It  is  evident, 
on  inspection,  that,  in  the  subjunctive  rnood,the  present  tense  of 
the  principal  verbs,  the  present  and  imperfect  tenses  of  the  verb 
to  he,  and  the  second  and  third  persons,  in  both  numbers,  of  the 
second  future  tense  of  all  verbs  ;*  require  a  variation  from  the 
forms  which  those  tenses  have  in  the  indicative  mood.  So  much 
difference  in  the  form  of  the  verb,  would  warrant  a  correspondent 
distinction  of  mood,  though  the  remaining  parts  of  the  subjunctive 
were,  in  all  respects,  similar  to  those  of  the  indicative.  In  other 
languages,  a  prhiciple  of  this  nature  has  been  admitted,  both  in 
the  conjugation  of  verbs,  and  the  declension  of  nouns.  2d.  There 
appears  to  be  as  much  propriety,  in  giving  a  conjunction  the 
power  of  assisting  to  form  the  subjunctive  mood,  as  there  is  in 
allowing  the  particle  to  to  have  an  effect  in  the  formation  of  the 
infinitive  mood.f  Sd.  A  conjunction  added  to  the  verb,  shows 
the  manner  of  being,  doing,  or  suffering,  which  other  particles 
cannot  show  :  they  do  not  coalesce  with  the  verb,  and  modify  it 
as  conjunctions  do.  4th.  It  may  be  said,  "  If  contingency  consti- 

rhe  objective  case  of  nouns  and  pronouns,  in  the  same  manner  as  verbs  i\o:  is 
It  not  manifest,  tliat  it  is  a  specie?  or  form  of  the  verb,  and  that  it  cannot  be 
properly  considered  as  a  distinct  part  of  speech  ? 
V*  We  think  it  has  been  proved,  that  the  auxiliary  is  a  constituent  part  of  the 
verb  to  which  it  relates  :  that  tlie  principal  and  its  auxiliary  form  but  one  verbu 
f  Conjunctions  have  an  influence  on  the  mood  of  the  foUowhig  verb. 

Dr.  BeatUe* 
Conjunctions  have  sometimes  a  government  of  mood*.  Dr.  Lou^ 


74  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

tutes  tlie  subjunctive  mood,  then  it  is  tlie  sense  of  a  phrase,  and 
not  a  conjunction,  that  determines  this  mood."  But  a  littie  re- 
flection will  show,  that  the  contingent  sense  lies  in  the  meaning 
and  force  of  the  conjunction,  expressed  or  understood. 

This  subject  maybe  farther  illustrated,  by  the  following  obser- 
vations.— Moods  have  a  foundation  in  nature.  They  show  what  is 
certain ;  what  is  possible  ;  what  is  conditional ;  what  is  command- 
ed. They  express  also  other  conceptions  and  volitions  ;  all  signify- 
ing the  manner  of  being,  doing,  or  suffering.  But  as  it  would  tend 
to  obscure,  rather  than  elucidate  the  subject,  if  the  moods  were 
\iarticularly  enumerated,  grammarians  have  very  properly  given 
ihem  such  combinations  and  arrangements,  as  serve  to  explain 
the  nature  of  this  part  of  language,  and  to  render  the  knowledge 
of  it  easily  attainable. 

The  grammars  of  some  languages  contain  a  greater  number 
of  the  moods,  than  others,  and  exhibit  them  in  different  forms 
The  Greek  and  Roman  tongues  denote  them,  by  particular  vari- 
ations in  the  verb  itself.  This  form,  however,  was  the  effect  oi 
ingenuity  and  improvement :  it  is  not  essential  to  the  nature  oi 
the  subject.  The  moods  may  be  as  effectually  designated  by  a 
plurality  of  words,  as  by  a  change  in  the  a})pearance  of  a  single 
word ;  because  the  same  ideas  are  denoted,  and  the  same  ends 
accomplished,  by  either  manner  of  expression. 

On  this  ground,  the  moods  of  the  English  verb,  as  well  as  the 
tenses,  are,  with  great  propriety,  formed  partly  by  the  principal 
verb  itself,  and  partly  by  the  assistance  which  that  verb  derives 
from  other  words.  For  further  observations,  relative  to  the 
views  and  sentiments  here  advanced,  see  pages  56j  56.  59,  60. 
77,  78—139—140. 

PASSIVE. 

Verbs  Passive  are  called  regular,  when  they  form  their 
perfect  participle  by  the  addition  of  d  or  ed,  to  the  verb: 
as,  from  the  verb  "  To  love,"  is  formed  the  passive,  "  I  am 
loved,  I  was  loved,  I  shall  be  loved,"  &c. 

A  passive  verb  is  conjugated  by  adding  the  perfect  parti- 
ciple to  the  auxiliary  to  6e,  through  all  its  changes  of  number 
person,  mood,  and  tense,  in  the  following  manner. 
TO  BE  LOVED. 
Indicative   Mood. 
Present  Tense, 
Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I  am  loved.  1.  We  are  loved. 

2.  Thou  art  loved.  2.  Ye  or  you  are  loved. 

3.  He  is  loved.  3.  They  are  loved. 

Imperfect  Tense, 
Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I  was  loved  1.  We  were  loved. 

^    Tliou  wabt  loved.  2.  Ye  or  you  were  loved. 

Uo  was  loved.  3.  They  were  loved. 


ETYMOLOGY  75 

Perfect   Tense, 
Singular  Plural. 

1,  I  have  been  loved.  1.  We  have  been  loved. 

9.  Thou  hast  been  loved.  2.  Ye  or  you  have  been  loved. 

3.  He  hath  or  '^as  been  loved.  3.  They  have  been  loved. 

Pluperfect  Tense, 
Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I  had  been  lo«red.        1.  We  had  been  loved. 

2.  Thou  hadst  been  loved.    2.  Ye  or  you  had  been  loved. 

3.  He  had  been  loved.       3.  They  had  been  loved. 

First  Future  Tense, 
Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I  shall  or  will  be  loved.  !•  We  shall  or  vrill  be  loved. 

1.  Thou  shalt  or  vv^ilt  be  loved.  2.  Ye  or  you  shall  or  will  be  loved 
3.  He  shall  or  will  be  loved.      3.  They  shall  or  will  be  loved. 

Second  Future  Tense, 
Singular.  Plural. 

J.  I  shall  have  been  loved.        1.  We  shall  have  been  loved. 

2.  Tliou  wilt  have  been  loved.  2.  Ye  or  you  will  have  been  loved. 

3.  He  will  have  been  loved.      3,  They  will  have  been  loved. 

Imperative  Mood. 
Singular.  Plural. 

J.  Let  me  be  loved.  1,  Let  us  be  loved. 

2.  Be  thou  loved,  or  do  thou     2.  Be  ye  or  you  loved,  or  do  ye  be 
be  loved.  loved. 

3.  Let  him  be  loved.  3.  Let  them  be  loved. 

Potential  Mood. 
Present  Tense. 
Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I  may  or  can  be  loved.  1.  We  may  or  can  be  loved. 

2.  Thou  mayst  or  canst  be  loved.  2.  Ye  or  you  may  or  can  be  loved. 

3.  He  may  or  can  be  loved.        3.  They  may  or  can  be  loved. 

Imperfect  Tense, 
Singular.  Plural 

I,  I  might,  could,  would,  or        L  We  might,  could,  would,  or 

should  be  loved.  should  be  loved. 

I,  Thou   mightst,  couldst,         2.  Ye  or  you  might,  could,wouldv 

wouldst,  or  shouldst  be  loved.      or  should  be  loved. 
3.  He  might,  could,  would,  3.  They  might,  could,  would,  o* 

or  should  be  loved.  should  be  loved. 

Perfect  Tense, 
Singular.  Plural. 

I.  I  may  or  can  have  been  1.  We  may   or  can  have  been 

loved.  loved. 

i.  Thou  mayst  or  canst  have      2.  Ye  or  you  may  or  can   have 

been  loved.  been  loved. 

3    He  may  or  can  have  been      3.  They  may  or  can  have  been 
loved.  loved. 


76  ENGLISH   GRAMxMAR. 

Pluperfed  Tense. 

Singular  Plural. 

1.  I  might,  could,  would,  or  1.  We    might,  could,  would, 
should  have  been  loved.  should  have  been  loved. 

2.  Thou    mightst,   couldst,  2.  Ye  oryou  might,  could,would 
wouldst,  or  shouldst  have  or  should  have  been  loved, 
been  loved. 

3.  He  might,  could,  would,  3.  They  might,  could,  would,  c 
or  should  have  been  loved.  should  have  been  loved. 

Subjunctive  Mood. 

Present  Tense. 
Singular.  Plural. 

1,  If  I  be  loved.  1.  If  we  be  loved. 

2,  If  thou  be  loved.         2.  If  ye  or  you  be  loved. 

3,  If  he  be  loved.  3.  If  they  be  loved. 

Imperfect  Tense. 
Singular.  Plural. 

1.  I  were  loved.  1.  If  we  were  loved. 

2.  If  thou  wert  loved.  2.  If  ye  or  you  were  loved. 

3.  If  he  were  loved.  3,  If  they  were  loved. 

The  remaining  tenses  of  this  mood  are,  in  general,  similar  tu 
the  correspondent  tenses  of  the  indicative  mood.     See  pages 
64,  73,  and  the  notes  under  the  nineteenth  rule  of  Syntax. 
Infinitive  Mood. 
Present  Tense.  Perfect. 

To  bo  loved.  To  have  been  loved. 

Pai^ticiples. 

Present.  Being  loved. 

Perfect  or  Passive.  Loved. 

Compound  Perfect.  Having  been  loved. 

When  an  auxiliary  is  joined  to  the  participle  of  the  principa) 
verb,  the  auxihary  goes  through  all  the  variations  of  person  an(t 
number,  and  the  participle  itself  continues  invariably  the  same 
When  there  are  two  or  more  auxiliaries  joined  to  the  participle, 
the  first  of  them  only  is  varied  according  to  person  and  number. 
The  auxiliary  r7iii5i  admits  of  no  variation. 

The  neuter  verb  is  conjugated  like  the  active;  but  as  it  pai- 
takes  somewhat  of  the  nature  of  the  passive,  it  admits,  in  many 
instances,  of  the  passive  form,  retaining  still  the  neuter  signifi- 
cation:  as,  "I  am  arrived;"  "I  was  gone;"  "I  am  grown.' 
The  auxiliary  verb,  am,  was,  in  this  case,  })recisely  defines  the 
time  of  the  action  or  event,  but  does  not  change  the  nature  of  it ; 
the  passive  form  still  expressing,  not  properly  a  passion,  but  only 
a  state  Or  condition  of  being. 

SECTION  IX.     Ghservations  on  Passive  Verbs. 
Some  writers  on  grammar  assert,  that  there  are  no  passiva 
verbs  in  the  English  language,  because  we  have  no  verbs  of  this 
kind  with  a  peculiar  termination,  all  of  them  being  formed  by  th« 


ETYMOLOGY.  77 

difFerent  tenses  of  the  -auxiliary  to  he,  joined  to  the  passive  parti- 
ciple of  the  verb.  This  is,  however,  to  mistake  the  true  nature 
of  the  English  verb ;  and  to  regulate  it,  not  on  the  principles  of 
our  o.wn  tongue,  but  on  those  of  foreign  languages.  The  con- 
jugation, or  the  variation,  of  the  English  verb,  to  answer  all  the 
purposes  of  verbs,  is  accomplished  by  the  means  of  auxiliaries  ; 
and  if  it  be  alleged  that  we  have  no  passive  verbs,  because  we 
cannot  exhibit  them  without  having  recourse  to  helping  verbs,  it 
may  with  equal  truth  be  said,  that  we  have  no  perfect,  pluperfect, 
or  future  tense,  in  the  indicative  or  subjunctive  mood;  since 
these,  as  well  as  some  other  parts  of  the  verb  active,  are  formed 
by  auxiliaries. 

Even  the  Greek  and  Latin  passive  verbs  require  an  auxiliary 
to  conjugate  some  of  their  tenses ;  namely,  the  former,  in  the 
preterit  of  the  optative  and  subjunctive  moods;  and  the  latter, 
in  the  perfect  and  pluperfect  of  the  indicative,  the  perfect,  plu- 
perfect, and  future,  of  the  subjunctive  mood,  and  the  perfect  of 
the  infinitive.  The  deponent  verbs,  in  Latin,  require  also  an 
auxiliary  to  conjugate  several  of  their  tenses.  This  statement 
abundantly  proves  that  the  conjugation  of  a  verb  in  the  learned 
languages  does  not  consist  solely  in  varying  the  form  of  the 
original  verb.  It  proves  that  these  languages,  like  our  own 
language,  sometimes  conjugate  with  an  auxiliary,  and  some- 
times without  it.  There  is,  indeed,  a  difference.  What  the 
learned  languages  require  to  be  done,  in  some  instances,  the 
peculiar  genius  of  our  own  tongue  obliges  us  to  do,  in  active 
verbs,  principally,  and  in  passive  ones,  universally.  In  short, 
the  variation  of  the  verb,  in  Greek  and  Latin,  is  generally  ac- 
complished by  prefixes,  or  terminations,  added  to  the  verb  itself; 
in  English,  by  the  addition  of  auxiliaries. 

The  English  tongue  is,  in  many  respects,  materially  different 
from  the  learned  languages.  It  is,  therefore,  very  possible  to  be 
mistaken  ourselves,  and  to  mislead  and  perplex  others,  by  an 
undistinguishing  attachment  to  the  principles  and  arrangement 
of  the  Greek  and  Latin  grammarians.  Much  of  the  confusion 
and  perplexity,  which  we  meet  with  in  the  writings  of  some 
English  grammarians,  on  the  subject  of  verbs,  moods,  and  con- 
jugations, has  arisen  from  the  misapplication  of  names.  We  are 
apt  to  think,  that  the  old  names  must  always  be  attached  to  the 
identical  forms  and  things  to  which  they  were  anciently  attached. 
But  if  we  rectify  this  mistake,  and  properly  adjust  the  names  to 
the  peculiar  forms  and  nature  of  the  things  in  our  own  language, 
we  shall  be  clear  and  consistent  in  our  ideas  ;  and,  consequently, 
better  able  to  represent  them  intelligibly  to  those  whom  we  wish 
to  inform. 

The  observations  which  we  have  made  under  this  head,  and 
on  the  subject  of  the  moods  in  another  place,  will  not  apply  to 
the  declension  and  cases  of  nouns,  so  as  to  require  us  to  adopt 
names  and  divisions  similar  to  those  of  the  Greek  and  Latin  Ian 
guages :  for  we  should  then  have  more  cases  than  there  are  pr« 


78  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 


;r  all,  H 
e  ever^l 


positions  in  connexion  with  the  article  and  noun :  and  after  j 
would  be  a  useless,  as  well  as  an  unwieldy  apparatus ;  since  c 
English  preposition  points  to,  and  governs,  but  one  case,  namely 
the  objective  ;  which  is  also  true  with  respect  to  our  governing 
verbs  and  participles.  But  the  conjugation  of  an  English  verb  in 
form,  through  all  its  moods  and  tenses,  by  means  of  auxiliaries, 
so  far  from  being  useless  or  intricate,  is  a  beautiful  and  regular 
display  of  it,  and  indispensably  necessary  to  the  language. 

Some  grammarians  have  alleged,  that  on  the  same  ground  that 
the  voices,  moods,  and  tenses,  are  adnntted  into  the  English  tongue, 
in  the  forms  for  which  we  have  contended,  we  should  also  admit 
the  dual  number,  the  paulo  post  future  tense,  the  middle  voice, 
and  all  the  moods  and  tenses,  which  are  to  be  found  in  Greek  and 
Latin.  But  this  objection,  tliough  urged  with  much  reliance  on 
its  weight,  is  not  well  founded.  If  the  arrangement  of  the  moods, 
tenses,  &c.  which  we  have  adopted,  is  suited  to  the  idiom  of  our 
tongue ;  and  the  principle,  on  which  they  are  adopted,  is  extend 
ed  as  far  as  use  and  convenience  require  ;  where  is  the  impro- 
priety, in  arresting  our  progress,  and  fixing  our  forms  at  the  point 
of  utility  ?  A  principle  may  be  warrantably  adopted,  and  car- 
ried to  a  precise  convenient  extent,  without  subjecting  its  sup- 
porters to  the  charge  of  inconsistency,  for  not  pursuing  it  beyond 
the  line  of  use  and  propriety. 

The  importance  of  giving  the  ingenious  stud'^.nt  clear  and  just 
ideas  of  the  nature  of  our  verbs,  moods,  and  tenses,  will  apolo- 
gize for  the  extent  of  the  Author's  remarks  on  these  subjt3Cts, 
both  here  and  elsewhere,  and  for  his  solicitude  to  simplify  and 
explain  them. — He  thinks  it  has  been  proved,  that  the  idiom  of 
our  tongue  demands  the  arrangement  he  has  gi^en  to  the  Eng- 
lish verb ;  and  that,  though  the  learned  languages,  with  respect 
to  voices,  moods,  and  tenses,  are,  in  general,  differently  con- 
structed from  the  English  tongue,  yet,  in  some  respects,  they  are 
so  similar  to  it,  as  to  warrant  the  principle  which  he  has  adopted 
See  pages  55,  56.  60,  61.  73,  74.  139  -140. 

SECTION  X.     Of  Irregular  Verbs. 

Irregular  verbs  are  those  which  do  not  form  their  im- 
perfect tense,  and  their  perfect  participle,  by  the  addition  of 
d  or  ed  to  the  verb  :  as, 


Present. 

Imperfect. 

Perfect  Part. 

I  begin. 

I  began. 

begun. 

1  know, 

I  knew, 

known. 

Irregular  Verbs  are  of  various  sorts. 
1.  Such  as  have  tho  present  and  imperfect  tenses,  and  perfect 
participle  the  same :  as. 

Present.  Imperfect.  Perfect  Part 

Cost,  cost,  cost. 

Put  put,  put. 


ETYMOLOGY. 


79 


2.  Such  as  have  the  imperfect  tense,  and  perfect  participle,  the 

same  :  as, 

Present.  Imperfect.  Perfect  Part. 

Abide,  abode,  abode. 

Sell,  sell,  sold. 

3.  Such  as  have  the  imperfect  tense,  and  perfect  participle 
different:  as, 

Present.  Imperfect.  Perfect  Part. 

Arise,  arose,  arisen. 

Blow,  blew,  blown. 

Many  verbs  become  irregular  by  contraction  ;  as,  "feed,  fed  j 
leave, left :'*  others  by  the  termination  C7i;  as,  "fall,  fell,  fallen:" 
others  by  the  termination g-/if ;  as,"  buy,  bought ;  teach,  taught,"&c. 

The  following  list  of  the  irregular  verbs  will,  it  is  presumed, 
be  found  both  comprehensive  and  accurate. 


Present. 

Imperfect 

Perf.  or  Pass.  Part. 

Abide, 

abode, 

abode. 

Am, 

was. 

been. 

Arise, 

arose. 

arisen. 

Awake, 

awoke,  r. 

awaked. 

Bear,  to  bring  forthy 

bare. 

born. 

Bear,  to  carnj^ 

bore, 

borne. 

Beat, 

beat. 

beaten,  beat. 

Begin, 

began, 

begun. 

Bend, 

bent. 

bent. 

Bereave, 

bereft,  r. 

bereft,  r 

Beseech, 

besought. 

besought. 

Bid, 

bid,  bade. 

bidden,  bid. 

Bind, 

bound. 

bound. 

Bite, 

bit. 

bitten,  bit. 

Bleed. 

bled. 

bled. 

Blow, 

blew, 

blown. 

Break, 

broke. 

broken 

Breed, 

bred, 

bred. 

Bring, 

brought, 

brought. 

Build, 

built, 

built. 

Burst, 

burst, 

burst. 

Buy, 

bought. 

bought. 

Cast, 

cast. 

cast. 

Catch, 

caught,  R. 

cauffht,  R. 
chidd««i,  chid. 

Chide, 

chid. 

Choose, 

chose. 

chosen 

Cleave,  to  stick  or 

>  REGULAR. 

adhere, 

Cleave,  to  split. 

clove,  or  cleft. 

cleft,  cloven. 

Cling, 

clung. 

clung. 

Clothe, 

clothed, 

clad.  R. 

Come, 

camo, 

come. 

Cost, 

cost, 

cost. 

80 


ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 


Present. 

Imperfect. 

Perf.  or  Paes.  Par*. 

Crow, 

crew,  R. 

crowed. 

Creep, 

crept, 

crept. 

Cut, 

cut. 

cut. 

Dare,  to  venture. 

durst. 

dared. 

J)are,  b,  to  challenge 

!« 

Deal 

dealt,  R. 

dealt,  R. 

J)ig, 

dug,  R. 

dug,  R. 

Do, 

did. 

done.                Jj 

Draw, 

drew. 

drawn.             m 

Drive 

drove. 

driven. 

Drink, 

drank. 

drunjc. 

Dwell, 

dwelt,  R. 

dwelt,  t> 

Eat, 

eat  or  ate. 

eaten. 

Fall, 

fell. 

fallen. 

Feed, 

fed, 

fed. 

Feel, 

felt. 

felt. 

Fight, 

fought, 

fough 

Find, 

found, 

founii 

Flee, 

fled. 

fled. 

Fling, 

flungv 

flung. 

Fly, 

flew. 

flown 

Forget, 

forgot. 

forgottfcu,  forgot 

Forsake, 

foraook, 

forsakekt. 

Freeze, 

froze. 

frozen. 

Get, 

got. 

got.* 

Gild, 

gilt,  R. 

gilt,  R. 

Gird, 

girt,  R. 

girt,  R. 

Give, 

gave. 

givtn. 

Go, 

went, 

gone. 

Grave, 

graved,            ^ 

graven,  r. 

Grind, 

ground. 

ground. 

Grow, 

grew, 

grown. 

Have, 

had, 

had. 

Hang, 

hung,  f 

hung,  R. 

Hear, 

heard. 

heard. 

Hew, 

hewed 

hewn,  R. 

Hide, 

hid. 

hidden,  hid* 

Hit, 

hit, 

hit. 

Hold, 

held. 

held. 

Hurt, 

hurt, 

hurt. 

Keep, 

kept. 

kept. 

Knit, 

knit,  I 

knit,  a. 

Know, 

knew, 

known. 

Lade, 

laded 

laden. 

Lay, 

laid. 

laid. 

licad, 

led, 

led. 

Leave, 

left. 

left. 

Lend, 

lent. 

lent. 

*  Gotten  is  nearly  obsolete.    Its  compound  Jbrgotien  ig  still  in  good  use. 


ETYMOLOGY 

Present. 

Imperfect. 

Perf.  or  Pass.  Part. 

Let, 

let, 

let. 

Lie.  to  lie  doion. 

lay. 

lain. 

Load, 

loaded, 

laden,  r. 

Lose, 

lost, 

lost. 

Make, 

made. 

made. 

Meet, 

met, 

met. 

Mow, 

mowed. 

mown,  r. 

ray, 

paid, 

paid. 

Put, 

put. 

put. 

Read, 

read, 

read. 

Rend, 

,  rent. 

rent. 

Rid, 

rid. 

rid. 

Ride, 

rode. 

rode,  ridden.* 

Ring, 

rung,  rail 

run-g. 

Rise, 

rose. 

risen. 

Rive, 

rived, 

riven. 

Run, 

ran. 

run. 

Saw, 

sawed, 

sawn,  R. 

Say, 

said. 

said. 

See, 

saw, 

seen. 

Seek, 

sought. 

sought. 

Sell, 

sold. 

sold. 

Send, 

sent, 

sent. 

Set. 

set. 

set. 

Shake, 

shook, 

shaken. 

Shape, 

shaped. 

shaped,  shapcn. 

Shave, 

shaved. 

shaven,  r. 

Shear, 

sheared. 

shorn. 

Shed, 

shed,       ^ 

shed. 

Shine, 

shone,  r 

shone,  r. 

Show, 

showed. 

shown. 

Shoe, 

shod. 

shod. 

Shoot, 

shot, 

shot. 

Shrink, 

shrunk, 

shrunk. 

Shred, 

shred, 

shred. 

Sliiit, 

shut. 

shut. 

Sing, 

sung,  sang, 

sung. 

Sink, 

sunk, sank. 

sunk. 

Sit, 

sat, 

sat. 

Sh'iy, 

slew, 

slain. 

Sleep, 

slept. 

slept. 

SUde, 

slid. 

slidden. 

Sling, 

slung, 

slung. 

Slink, 

slunk, 

slunk. 

Sht, 

slit,  R. 

slit,  or  slitted. 

Smite, 

smote. 

smitten. 

Sow, 

sowed, 

sown.  R. 

Speak, 

spoke. 

spoken. 

*^  Ridden  is  nearly  obsolete. 

82 


ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 


Perf.  or  Pass.  Part. 

sped. 

spent. 

spilt.  R. 

spun. 

spit,  spitten* 

split. 

spread. 

sprung. 

stood. 

stolen. 

stuck. 

stung. 

stun£. 

stridden. 

struck  or  stricken 

strung. 

striven. 

strown,  strowed 

strewed, 
sworn, 
swet,  k, 
swollen,  R. 
swum, 
swung, 
taken. 

taught.  --     , 

torn, 
told, 
thought, 
thriven, 
thrown, 
thrust, 
hodden, 
waxen,  r. 
worn, 
woven, 
wept, 
won. 
wound. 

wrought  or  worked, 
wrung, 
written. 

In  the  preceding  list,  some  of  the  verbs  will  be  found  to  be 
conjugated  regularly,  as  well  as  irregularly ;  and  those  which 
admit  of  the  regular  form  are  marked  with  an  b.  There  is  a 
preference  to  be  given  to  some  of  these,  which  custom  and 
iudgment  must  determine.  Those  preterits  and  participles  which 


Present. 

Imperfect. 

Speed, 

sped. 

Spend, 

spent. 

Spill, 

spilt,  R. 

Spin, 

spun. 

Spit, 

spit,  spat, 

Split, 

spht, 

Spread, 

spread. 

Spring, 

sprung,  sprang. 

Stand, 

stood. 

Steal, 

stole. 

Stick, 

stuck. 

Sting, 

stung. 

Stink, 

stunk. 

Stride, 

strode  or  strid. 

Strike, 

struck, 

String, 

strung, 

Strive, 

strove. 

Strow  or  strew, 

strowed  or  strewed. 

Swear, 

swore. 

Sweat, 

swet,  R. 

SweUL 

swelled, 

Swim, 

swum,  swam, 

Swing, 

swung. 

Take, 

took, 

Teach, 

taught, 

Tear, 

tore, 

Tell, 

told. 

Think, 

thought,        ^ 

Thrive, 

throve,  r. 

Throw, 

threw. 

Thrust, 

thrust, 

Tread, 

trod. 

Wax,    . 

waxed, 

Wear, 

wore. 

Weave, 

wove, 

Weep, 

wept. 

Win, 

won. 

Wind, 

wound, 

Work, 

wrought. 

Wring, 

wrung. 

Write, 

wrote, 

Spiiten  is  nearly  obsolete. 


ETYMOLOGY.  83 

are  first  mentioned  in  the  list,  seem  to  be  most  eligible.  The 
Compiler  has  not  inserted  such  verbs  as  are  irregular  only  in 
familiar  writing  or  discourse,  and  which  are  improperly  termi- 
nated by  t,  instead  of  ed :  as,  learnt,  spelt,  spilt,  &c.  These 
should  be  avoided  in  every  sort  of  composition.  It  is,  however, 
proper  to  observe,  that  some  contractions  of  edinto  t,  are  unex- 
ceptionable :  and  others,  the  only  established  forms  of  expression  : 
as  crept,  gilt,  &c. :  and  lost,  felt,  slept,  &c.  These  allowable  and 
necessary  contractions  must  therefore  be  carefully  distinguished 
by  the  learner,  from  those  that  are  exceptionable.  The  words 
which  are  obsolete  have  also  been  omitted,  that  the  learner  might 
not  be  induced  to  mistake  them  for  words  in  present  use.  Such 
are,wreathen,  drunken,  holpen,  molten,  gotten,  holden,  bounden, 
&c.:  and  swang,  wrang,  slank,  strawed,  gat,  brake,  tare,ware,  &c. 

SECTION  XI.    Of  Defective  Verbs;  and  of  the  different  ways  in 
which  verbs  are  conjugated. 

Defective  verbs  are  those  which  are  used  only  in 
some  of  their  moods  and  tenses. 

2Vie  principal  of  them  are  these. 
Present.  Imperfect.  Perf.  or  Pass.  Part, 

Can,  could,  

May,  might,         ~ 

Shall,  should,  

Will,  would,  

Must,  must,  

Ought,  ought,  

quoth,  

That  the  verbs  must  and  ought  have  both  a  present  and  past 
signification,  appears  from  the  following  sentences :  "  I  must 
own  that  I  am  to  blame ;"  "  He  must  have  been  mistaken ;" 
"  Speaking  things  which  they  ought  not ;"  •'  These  ought  ye  to 
have  done." 

In  most  languages  there  are  some  verbs  which  are  defective 
with  respect  to  persons.  These  are  denominated  impersonal 
verbs.  They  are  used  only  in  the  third  person,  because  they 
refer  to  a  subject  peculiarly  appropriated  to  that  person  ;  as, 
"  It  rains,  it  snows,  it  hails,  it  lightens,  it  thunders."  But  as  the 
word  impersonal  implies  a  total  absence  of  persons,  it  is  impro- 
perly applied  to  those  verbs  which  have  a  person :  and  hence  it 
is  manifest,  that  there  is  no  such  thing  in  English,  nor  indeed,  in 
any  language,  as  a  sort  of  verbs  really  impersonal. 

The  whole  number  of  verbs  in  the  English  language,  regular 

and  irregular,  simple  ai;d  compounded,  taken  together,  is  about 

4300.     The  number  of  irregular  verbs,  the  defective  included,  ia 

about  177.* 

Some  grammarians  have  thought  that  the  English  verbs,  as  wel! 

*  The  «hole  number  of  words,  in  the  English  language,  is  about  thirty-fivo 
thousand  '% 


84  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 

as  those  of  the  Greek,  Latin,  French,  and  other  languages,  might 
be  classed  into  several  conjiigaiions  ;  and  that  the  three  different 
terminations  of  the  participle  might  be  the  distinguishing  cha- 
racteristics. They  have  accordingly  proposed  three  conjuga- 
tions ;  namely,  the  first  to  consist  of  verbs,  the  participles  of 
which  end  in  ed  or  its  contraction  i ;  the  second,  of  those  ending 
in  ght;  and  the  third  of  those  in  en.  But  as  the  verbs  of  the 
first  conjugation,  would  so  greatly  exceed  in  number  those  of 
^oth  the  others,  as  may  be  seen  by  the  preceding  account  ol 
ibem ;  and  as  those  of  the  third  conjugation  are  so  various  in 
iheir  form,  and  incapable  of  being  reduced  to  one  plain  rule  ;  it 
seems  better  in  practice,  as  Dr.  Lowth  justly  observes,  to  consider 
the  first  in  ed  as  the  only  regular  form,  and  the  other  as  deviations 
A"om  it ;  after  the  example  of  the  Saxon  and  German  grammarians. 
Before  we  close  the  account  of  the  verbs,  it  may  afford  in- 
etruction  to  the  learners,  to  be  informed,  more  particularly  than 
they  have  been,  that  different  nations  have  made  use  of  different 
contrivances  for  marking  the  tenses  and  moods  of  their  verbs. 
The  Greeks  and  Latins  distinguish  them,  as  well  as  the  cases  of 
their  nouns,  adjectives,  and  participles,  by  varying  the  termina- 
tion, or  otherwise  changing  the  form,  of  the  word ;  retaining, 
however,  those  radical  letters,  which  prove  the  inflection  to  be  of 
the  same  kindred  with  its  root.  The  modern  tongues,  particularly 
the  English,  abound  in  auxiliary  words,  which  vary  the  mean- 
ing of  the  noun,  or  the  verb,  without  requiring  any  considerable 
varieties  of  inflection.  Thus,  I  do  love,  I  did  love,  I  have  loved,  I 
had  loved,  I  shall  love,  have  the  same  import  with  avio,  amaham^ 
amavi,  amaveram,  amaho.  It  is  obvious,  that  a  language,  like  the 
Greek  or  Latin,  which  can  thus  comprehend  in  one  word  the 
meaning  of  two  or  three  words,  must  have  some  advantages 
over  those  which  are  not  so  comprehensive.  Perhaps,  indeed, 
it  may  not  be  more  perspicuous ;  but,  in  the  arrangement  of  words, 
and  consequently  in  harmony  and  energy,  as  well  as  in  con- 
ciseness, it  may  be  much  more  elegant. 

CHAPTER  VII 
OF    ADVERBS. 

An  Adverb  is  a  part  of  speech  joined  to  a  verb,  an  adjec- 
tive, and  sometimes  to  another  adverb,  to  express  some 
quality  or  circumstance  respecting  it :  as,  "  He  reads  well  ^" 
*'  A  truly  good  man  ;"  "  He  writes  very  correctly ^ 

Some  adverbs  are  compared,  tlms,  "Soon,  sooner,  soon- 
est ;"  "  often,  oftener,  oftenest."  Those  ending  in  ly,  are 
compared  by  morc^  and  most :  as, "  Wisely,  more  wisely,  most 
wisely." 

Adverbs  seem  originally  to  have  been  contrived  to  express 
compendiously  in  one  word,  what  must  otherwise  have  required 
two  or  more  :  as,  **  He  acted  wisely,"  for,  be  acted  with  wifadoni  • 


frrvMOLOGY.  e's 

"prudently,"  for,  with  prudence  ;  "He  ditl  it  here,"  for,  be  did 
it  in  this  place  ;  "  exceedingly,"  for,  to  a  great  degree  ;  "  often 
and  seldom,"  for  many,  and  for  few  times ;  "  very,"  for,  in  aD 
eminent  degree,  &c. 

There  are  many  words  in  the  English  languc.ge  that  are  some- 
times used  as  adjectives,  and  sometimes  as  adverbs :  as,  "More 
men  than  women  were  there  ;"  or,  "  I  am  more  diligent  than 
he."  In  the  former  sentence  more  13  evidently  an  adjective,  and 
in  the  latter,  an  adverb.  There  are  others  that  are  sometimes 
used  as  substantives,  and  sometimes  as  adverbs :  as,  "  To-day's 
lesson  is  longer  than  yesterday's  ;"  here  to-day  and  yesterday  are 
substantives,  because  they  are  words  that  make  sense  of  them- 
selves, and  admit  besides  of  a  genitive  case:  but  in  the  phrase, 
"  He  came  home  yesterday,  and  sets  out  again  to-day,"  they  are 
adverbs  of  time  ;  because  they  answer  to  the  question  when 
The  adverb  much  is  used  as  all  three:  as,  "Where  much  ia 
given,  much  is  required;"  "Much  money  has  been  expended  ;" 
"It  is  much  better  to  go  than  to  stay."  In  the  first  of  these 
sentences,  much  is  a  substantive  ;  in  the  second,  it  is  an  adjec- 
tive ;  and  in  the  third,  an  adverb.  In  short,  nothing  but  the 
sense  can  determine  what  they  are. 

Adverbs,  though  very  numerous,  may  be  reduced  to  certain 
classes,  the  chief  of  which  are  those  of  Number,  Order,  Place, 
Time,  Quantity,  Manner  or  Quality,  Doubt,  Affirmation,  Nega- 
tion, Interrogation,  and  Comparison. 

1.  Oi  7iU7nber :  as,  "Once,  twice,  thrice,"  &c. 

2.  Of  order :  as,  "  First,  secondly,  thirdly,  fourthly,  fifthly, 
lastly,  finally,"  &c. 

3.  Of  place:  as,  "Here,  there,  where,  elsewhere,  anywhere, 
somewhere,  nowhere,  herein,  whither,  hither,  thither,  upward, 
downward,  forward,  backward,  Avhence,  hence,  thence,  whither- 
soever," &c. 

4.  Of  time. 

Of  time  present:  as,  "Now,  to-day,"  &c. 

Of  time  past :  as,  "  Already,  before,  lately,  yesterday,  hereto- 
fore, hitherto,  long  since,  long  ago,"  &c. 

Of  time  to  come  :  as,  "To-morrow,  not  yet,  hereafter,  hence- 
forth, henceforward,  by  and  by,  instantly,  presently,  immedi- 
ately, straightways,"  Szc. 

Of  time  indejinite  :  as,  "  Oft,  often,  oft-times,  often-times,  some- 
times, soon,  seldom,  daily,  weekly,  monthly,  yearly,  always, 
when,  then,  ever,  never,  again,"  &c. 

5.  Of  qnaniUy :  as,  "  Much,  little,  sufficiently,  how  much, 
how  great,  enough,  abundantly,"  &c. 

6.  Of  manner  or  quality :  as,  "  Wisely,  foolishly,  justly,  un- 
justly, quicLly,  slowly,"  &c.  Adverbs  of  quality  are  the  most 
numerous  kind  ;  and  they  are  generally  formed  by  adding  the 
termination  ly  to  an  adjective  or  participle,  or  changing  It  into 
hj:  ad,  "  Bad,  badly  ;  clieerful,  cheerfully  ;  able,  ably  ;  admirable, 
admirably'."  ^ 


86  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 

7.  Ofdouht :  as, "  Perha])s,  peradventure,  possibly,  perchance.** 

8.  Of  affirmation :  as,  **  Verily,  truly,  undoubtedly,  doubtles.% 
certainly,  yea,  yes,  surely,  indeed,  really,"  &c. 

9.  Of  negation  :  as,  "  Nay,  no,  not,  by  no  means,  not  at  all,  in 
nowise,"  &c. 

10.  Of  interrogation  :  as,  "  How,  why,  wherefore,  whether,"  &c. 

11.  0£ comparison :  as,  "  More,  most,  better,  best,  worse,  worst,, 
less,  least,  very,  almost,  little,  alike,"  &c. 

Besides  the  adverbs  already  mentioned,  there  are  many  which 
are  formed  by  a  combination  of  several  of  the  prepositions  with 
ihe  adverbs  of  place,  here,  there,  and  where :  as,  "  Hereof,  thereof, 
whereof;  hereto,  thereto,  whereto;  hereby,  thereby,  whereby; 
lierewith,  therewith,  wherewith  ;  herein,  therein,  wherein  ,  there- 
fore, (i.  e.  there-for,)  wherefore,  (i.  e.  where- for,)  hereupon  or 
liereon,  thereupon  or  thereon,  whereupon  or  whereon,  &c.  Ex- 
cept therefore,  these  are  seldom  used. 

In  some  instances  the  preposition  suffers  no  change,  but  be 
comes  an  adverb  merely  by  its  application :  as  when  we  say, 
"he  rides  about  f^  "he  was  near  falling  ;"  "but  do  not  after  lay 
the  blame  on  me." 

There  are'  also  some  adverbs,  which  are  composed  of  nouns, 
and  the  letter  a  used  instead  of  at,  on,  &c.:  as,  "Aside,  athirst, 
afoot,  ahead,  asleep,  aboard,  ashore,  abed,  aground,  afloat,"  &c. 

The  words  when  and  where,  and  all  others  of  the  same  nature, 
such  as,  whence,  whither,  whenever,  wherever,  &c.  may  be  [)roperly 
called  adverbial  conjunctions,  because  they  participate  the  nature 
both  of  adverbs  and  conjunctions:  of  conjunctions,  as  they 
conjoin  sentences;  of  adverbs,  as  they  denote  the  attributes 
either  of  time  or  of  place. 

It  may  be  particularly  observed  with  respect  to  the  word  there- 
fore, that  it  is  an  adverb,  when,  withofit  joining  sentences,  it  only 
gives  the  sense  of,  for  that  reason.  When  it  gives  that  sense, 
and  also  connects,  it  is  a  conjunction  :  as,  "He  is  good,  iftere/bre 
he  is  happy."  The  same  observation  may  be  extended  to  the 
words  consequently,  accordingly,  and  the  like.  When  these  are 
subjoined  to  and,  or  joined  to  if,  since,  &c.  they  are  adverbs,  the 
connexion  being  made  withowt  their  help :  when  they  appear 
single,  and  unsupported  by  any  other  connective,  they  may  bo 
called  conjunctions. 

The  inquisitive  scholamay  naturally  ask,  what  necessity  there 
is  for  adverbs  of  time,  when  verbs  are  provided  witli  tenses,  to  show 
that  circumstance.  The  answer  is,  though  tenses  may  be  suffi 
cient  to  denote  the  greater  distinctions  of  time,  yet,  to  denote 
them  all  by  the  tenses  would  be  a  perplexity  without  end.  What 
a  variety  ef  forms  must  be  given  to  the  vej-b,  to  denote  yesterday, 
to-day,  to-morrow,  formerly,  lately,  just  now,  now,  immediately,  pre- 
sently^ soon,  hereafter,  &c.  It  was  this  consideration  that  i 
the  adverbs  of  time  necessary,  over  and  above  the  tenses. 


at  mad^ 

'4 


Of 

into 

to 

witliin 

for 

without 

by 

over 

with 

under 

in 

tlirough 

at 

off 

near 

on  or  upon 

up 

among 

down 

after 

before 

about 

behind 

against. 

ETYMOLOGY.  87 

GIIAPTEll  Vin. 
OF  FREPOSITIOjYS. 
Prepositions  serve  to  connect  words  with  one  another, 
and  to  show  the  relation  between  them.  They  are,  for 
the  most  part,  put  before  nouns  and  pronouns,  as,  "  He 
went  from  London  to  York  ;"  "  She  is  above  disguise ;" 
*'  They  are  instructed  bi/  him." 

The  following  is  a  list  of  the  principal  prepositions: 
above  '^ 

below 
between 
beneath 
from 
beyond 

Verbs  are  often  compounded  of  a  verb  and  a  preposition  :  as, 
to  uj>ho]d,  to  invest,  to  overlook :  and  this  composition  some« 
times  gives  a  new  sense  to  the  verb ;  as,  to  understand,  to  with- 
draw, to  forgive.  But  in  English,  the  preposition  is  moi*e  fre- 
quently placed  after  the  verb,  and  separately  from  it,  hke  an 
adverb,  in  which  situation  it  is  not  less  apt  to  affect  the  sense  of 
it,  and  to  give  it  a  new  meaning  ;  and  may  still  be  considered  as 
belonging  to  the  verb,  and  as  a  part  of  it.  As,  to  cast^  is  to  throw  ; 
but  to  cast  up^  or  to  compute,  an  account,  is  quite  a  different  thing  : 
thus,  to  fall  on,  to  bear  out,  to  give  over,  &.c.  So  that  the  mean- 
ing of  the  verb,  and  the  propriety  of  the  phrase,  depend  on  the 
preposition  subjoined. 

In  the  com])osition  of  many  words,  there  are  certain  syllables 
employed,  which  grammarians  have  called  inseparable  preposi- 
tions :  as,  be,  con,  viis,  &c.  in  bedeck,  conjoin,  mistake :  but  as 
they  are  not  words  of  any  kind,  they  cannot  properly  be  called 
a  species  of  preposition. 

One  great  use  of  prepositions,  in  English,  is,  to  express  those 
relations,  w!»ich,  in  some  languages,  are  chiefly  marked  by  cases, 
or  the  different  endings  of  nouns.  See  page  39.  The  necessity 
an<l  use  of  them  will  appear  from  the  following  exam])les.  If 
we  say,  "  he  writes  a  i)en,"  "  they  ran  the  river,"  "  the  tower 
fell  the  Greeks,"  "  Lambeth  is  Westminster-abbey,"  thore  is 
observable,  in  each  of  these  expressions,  either  a  total  want  of 
connexion,  or  such  a  connexion  as  produces  falsehood  or  non- 
sense :  and  it  is  evident,  that  before  they  can  be  turned  into 
Bcnse,  the  vacancy  must  be  filled  up  by  some  connecting  word : 
as  thus,  "  He  writes  ivith  a  pen  ;"  "  they  ran  towards  the  river  ;" 
"the  tower  fell  vpon  the  Greeks;"  "Lambeth  is  over  against 
Westir.inster-abbey."  We  see  by  these  instances,  how  preposi- 
tions may  be  necessary  to  connect  those  words,  which  in  their 
signification  are  not  naturally  connected. 

Prepositions,  in  their  original  and  literal  acceptation,  seem  to 
have  denoted  relations  of  place ;  but  they  are  now  used  Jlgura^ 


88  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 

tively  to  express  other  relations.  For  example,  as  tliey  who  art 
above  have  in  several  respects  the  advantage  of  such  as  are  beloio, 
prepositions  expressinrj  high  and  low^  places  are  used  for  superi- 
ority and  inferiority  in  general  :  as,  "  He  is  above  disguise  ;"  "vv« 
serve  under  a  good  master  ;"  "  he  rules  over  a  willing  people  ;" 
"  we  should  do  nothing  beneath  our  character." 

The  importance  of  the  pre-;ositions  will  be  further  perceived 
by  the  explanation  of  a  few  of  them. 

Of  denotes  possession  cr  belongmg,  an  effect  or  onsequencn, 
and  other  relations  connected  with  these  :  as,  "  The  house  of 
my  friend  ;"  that  is,  "  the  house  belonging  to  my  friend  ;"  "  He 
died  ofa.  fever;"  that  is,  "  in  consequence  of  a  fever." 

To,  or  unto,  is  opposed  to  from ;  as,  "  He  rode  from  Salisbury 
to  Winchester." 

For  indicates  the  cause  or  motive  of  any  action  or  circum- 
stance, &c.  as,  "  He  loves  her  for  (that  is,  on  account  of)  her 
amiable  qualities." 

By  is  generally  used  with  reference  to  the  cause,  agent, 
means,  &c. :  as,  "  He  was  killed  by  a  fall ;"  that  is,  "  a  fall  was 
the  cause  of  his  being  killed ;"  "  This  house  was  built  by  him  ;" 
that  is,  "  he  was  the  builder  of  it." 

With  denotes  the  act  of  accompanying,  uniting,  &c. :  as,  "  We 
will  go  xoith  you  ;"  *'  They  are  on  good  terms  with  each  other." 

With  also  alludes  to  the  instrument  or  means ;  as,  "  He  was 

cut  with  a  knife." 

In  relates  to  time,  place,  the  state  or  manner  of  being  or  act- 
ing, &c. :  as,  "  He  was  born  in  (that  is,  during)  the  year  1720  ;" 
"  He  dwells  in  the  city,"  "  She  lives  in  affluence." 

Into  is  us>3d  after  verbs  that  imply  motion  of  any  kind  :  a.«, 
"  He  retired  into  the  country ;"  "  Copper  is  converted  into  brass." 

Within,  relates  to  something  comprehended  in  any  place  or 
time  :  as,  "  They  are  within  the  house  ;"  "  He  began  and  finished 
his  work  vnthin  the  limited  time," 

The  signification  of  without  is  opposite  to  that  of  within  :  as, 
'  She  stands  ivithout  the  gate :"  But  it  is  more  frequently  opposed 
to  with ;  as,  "  You  may  go  without  me." 

The  import  and  force  of  the  remaining  prepositions  will  be 
readily  understood,  without  a  particular  detail  of  them.  We 
shall,  therefore,  conclude  this  head  with  observing,  that  there  is 
a  peculiar  propriety  in  distinguishing  the  use  of  the  jwepositionfe 
by  and  with ;  which  is  observable  in  sentences  like  the  following. 
*'  He  walks  ivith  a  staff  %  moonlight ;"  "  He  was  taken  by  stra- 
tagem, and  killed  with  a  sword."  Put  the  one  preposition  for 
the  other,  and  say,  "he  walks  6?/ a  staff  m^Ti  moonlight ;"  **  ho 
was  taken  with  stratagem,  and  killed  by  a  sword ;"  and  it  will 
appear,  that  they  differ  in  signification  more  than  one;  at  first 
view,  would  be  apt  to  imagine. 

Some  of  the  prepositions  have  the  appearance  and  effect  ol 
conjunctions;  as,  "  ^i(er  their  prisons  were  thrown  open,"  &:c. 
**  Before  I  die ;"  "  They  made  haste  to  be  prepared  against  theij 


ETYMOLOGY.  89 

frieiids  arrived  :"  but  if  the  noun  time,  which  is  un,iorstood,  be 
added,  they  will  lose  their  conjunctive  foj*m ;  as,  "  After  [th« 
time  when]  their  prisons,"  &c. 

The  prepositions  after,  before,  above,  beneath,  and  several  others, 
sometimes  appear  to  be  adverbs,  and  may  be  so  considered  :  as, 
*'  They  had  their  reward  soon  after ;"  *'  He  died  not  long  before  ;" 
"  Ho  dwells  above ;"  but  if  the  nouns  time  and  ylace  be  added, 
they  will  lose  their  adverbial  form  ;  as,  "  He  died  not  long  before 
that  time,^^  &c. 

CHAPTER  IX. 
OF  CO.YJUJSrCTIOJVS, 
A  CONJUNCTION  is  a  part  of  speech  that  is  chiefly  used 
to  connect  sentences  ;  so  as,  out  of  two  or  more  sentences, 
to  make  but  one.     It  sometimes  connects  only  words. 

Conjunctions  are  principally  divided  into  two  sorts,  the 
COPULATIVE  and  the  disjunctive. 

The  Conjunction  Copulative  serves  to  connect  or  to  con- 
tinue a  sentence,  by  expressing  an  addition,  a  supposition, 
a  cause,  &c. :  as,  *'  He  and  his  brother  reside  in  London;" 
"  I  will  go  ?/he  wi!l  accompany  me."  "  You  are  happy,  be- 
cause you  are  good." 

The  Conjunction  Disjunctive  serves,  not  only  to  connect 
and  continue  the  sentence,  but  also  to  express  opposition 
of  meaning  in  different  degrees :  as,  **  Though  he  was  fre- 
quently reproved,  yet  he  did  not  reform  ;"  "  They  came  with 
her,  but  they  went  away  without  her." 

The  following  is  a  list  of  the  principal  Conjunctions. 

The  Copulative.     And,  if,  that,  both,  then,  since,  for,  because), 
therefore,  wherefore. 

The  Disjunctive.    But,  or,  nor,  as,  than,  lest,  though,  unleesj 
either,  neither,  yet,  rutwithstanding. 

The  same  word  is  occasionally  used  both  as  a  conjunction 
and  as  an  adverb  ;  and  sometinies,  as  a  preposition.  "  I  rest  then 
upon  this  argument ;"  then  is  here  a  conjunction :  in  the  follow- 
ing phrase,  it  is  an  adverb  ;  "  He  arrived  then,  and  not  before.'* 
"  I  submitted  ;  for  it  was  vain  to  resist :"  in  this  sentence,  for  is 
a  conjunction ;  in  the  next,  it  is  a  preposition:  "He  contended 
for  victory  only."  In  the  first  of  the  following  sentences,  since 
is  a  conjunction:  in  the  second,  it  is  a  preposition;  and  m  the 
third,  an  adverb  :  "  Since  we  must  part,  let  us  do  it  peaceably:" 
"  I  have  not  seen  him  since  th  U  time :"  "  Our  friendship  com 
menced  long  5incc." 

Relative  jA'onouns  as  well  as  conjunctions,  serve  to  connect 
sentences:  as,  "Blessed  is  the  man  u^^o  feareth  the  Lord,  and 
keepeth  his  commandments." 

A  relative  pronoun  i;ossesses  the  force  both  of  a  pronoun  ancl 


00  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 

a  connective.  Nay,  tlie  union  by  relatives  is  ratlje*  cloaer,  th  n 
that  by  mere  conjunctions.  Tlie  latter  may  form  ivvo  or  more 
sentences  into  one  ;  but,  by  the  former,  several  sentences  may 
incorporate  in  ose  and  the  same  clause  of  a  sentence.  Thus, 
'  hou  seest  a  man,  and  he  is  called  Peter,"  is  a  sentence  con- 
si  ting  of  two  distinct  clauses,  united  by  the  copulative  and :  hut, 
"  the  man  tvhom  thou  seest  is  called  Peter,"  is  a  sentence  of  one 
clause,  and  not  less  comprehensive  than  the  other. 

Conjunctions  very  often  unite  sentences,  when  they  appear  tc 
unite  only  words ;  as  in  the  foUov/ing  instances  :  "  Duty  and  in- 
terest forbid  vicious  indulgences ;"  "  Wisdom  or  folly  governs 
us."  Each  of  these  forms  of  expression  contains  two  sentences, 
namely  ;  "  Duty  forbids  vicious  indulgences  ;  interest  forbids  vi- 
cious indulgences ;"  "  Wisdom  governs  us,  or  folly  governs  us." 

Though  the  conjunction  is  commonly  used  to  connect  sen- 
tences together,  yet,  on  some  occasions,  it  merely  connects 
words,  not  sentences ;  as.  "  The  king  a7id  queen  are  an  amiable 
pair  ;"  where  the  affirmation  cannot  refer  to  each  :  it  being  absurd 
to  say,  that  the  king  or  the  queen  only  is  an  amiable  pair.  So  in 
the  instances,  "  two  and  two  are  four ;"  "  the  fifth  and  sixth 
volumes  will  complete  the  set  of  books."  Prepositions  also,  as 
before  observed,  connect  words  ;  but  they  do  it  to  show  the  re- 
lation which  the  cownected  words  liave  to  each  other:  conjunc- 
tions, when  they  unite  words  only,  are  designed  to  show  the  re- 
lations, which  those  words,  so  united,  have  to  other  parts  of  the 
sentence. 

As  there  are  many  conjunctions  and  connective  phrases  ap- 
propriated to  the  coupling  of  sentences,  that  are  never  employed 
in  joining  the  members  of  a  senten.s  ;  so  there  are  several  con- 
junctions appropriated  to  the  latter  use,  which  are  never  employed 
in  the  former;  and  some  that  are  equally  adapted  to  both  those  pur- 
poses :  as,  again,  further y  besides,  &c.  of  the  first  kind  ;  than,  lest^ 
unless,  that,  so  that,  &c.  of  the  second  j  and  but,  and,  for^  there^ 
fore,  &;c.  of  the  last. 

We  shall  close  this  chapter  with  a  few  observations  on  the 
peculiar  use  and  advantage  of  the  conjunctions  ;  a  subject  which 
will,  doubtless,  give  pleasure  to  the  ingenious  student,  and  ex- 
pand his  views  of  the  importance  of  his  grammatical  studies. 

"  Relatives  are  not  so  useful  in  language,  as  conjunctions. 
The  former  make  speech  more  concise  ;  the  latter  make  it  more 
explicit.  Relatives  comprehend  the  meaning  of  a  pronoun  and 
conjunction  copulative:  conjunctions,  while  they  couple  sen- 
tences, may  also  express  opposition,  inference,  and  many  other 
relations  and  dependences. 

Till  men  began  to  think  in  a  train,  and  to  carry  their  reason- 
ings to  a  considerable  length,  it  is  not  probable  that  they  would 
make  much  use  of  conjunctions,  or  of  any  other  connectives. 
Ignorant  people,  and  children,  generally  speak  in  short  and  sepa- 
rate sentences.  The  same  thing  is  true  of  barbaroua  nations  x 
v'ld  hence  uncultivated  languages  are  not  well  supplied  with 


ETYiMOLOGY.  91 

connecfing  particle?.  The  Greeks  were  the  greatest  reasoncra 
that  ever  a])peared  in  the  world  ;  and  their  language,  according- 
ly, ahounds  more  than  any  other  in  connectives. 

Conjunctions  are  not  equally  necessary  in  all  sorts  of  writing. 
In  poetry,  where  great  conciseness  of  phrase  is  required,  and 
©very  appearance  of  formality  avoided,  many  of  them  would 
have  a  bad  etfect.  In  passionate  language  too;  it  may  be  proper 
to  omit  them  :  because  it  is  the  nature  of  violent  passion,  to  speak 
rath«r  in  disjointed  sentences,  than  in  the  v^ay  of  inference  and 
argument.  Books  of  aphorisms,  like  the  Proverl)s  of  Solomon, 
nave  few  connectives  ;  because  tliey  instruct,  not  by  reasoning., 
but  in  detached  observations.  And  narrative  will  sometimes  ap- 
pear very  graceful,  when  the  circumstances  are  plainly  told,  with 
scarcely  qny  other  conjunction  than  the  simple  copulative  and: 
which  is  frequently  the  case  in  the  historical  parts  of  Scriptur«. 
When  narration  is  full  of  images  or  events,  the  omission  of  con- 
nectives may,  by  crowding  the  principal  words  upon  one  another, 
give  a  sort  of  picture  of  hurry  and  tumult,  and  so  heighten  the 
vivacity  of  description.  But  when  facts  are  to  be  traced  down 
through  their  consequences,  or  upwards  to  their  causes  ;  when 
ihe  complicated  designs  of  mankind  arc  to  be  laid  open,  or  con- 
jectures offered  concerning  them  ;  when  the  historian  argues 
either  for  the  elucidation  of  truth,  or  in  order  to  state  the  pleas 
And  principles  of  contending  parties;  there  will  be  occasion  for 
every  species  of  connective,  as  much  as  in  philosophy  itself.  In 
fact,  ii:  is  in  argument,  investigation,  and  science,  that  this  part 
of  speech  is  i>cculiarly  and  indispensably  necessary." 

CHAPTER  X. 
OF  IJ^TERJECTIOJVS. 

Interjections  are  words  thrown  in  between  the  parts  of 
a  sentence,  to  express  the  passions  or  emotions  of  the  speak- 
er :  as,  "  Oh  !  1  have  alienated  my  friend  ;  alas  !  I  fear  for 
life  ;*'  "  O  virtue !  how  amiable  thou  art !" 

The  English  Interjections,  as  well  as  those  of  other  languages, 
are  comp.rised  within  a  small  compass.  They  are  of  different 
sorts,  according  to  the  different  passions  which  they  serve  to  ex 
press.  Those  which  mtimate  earnestness  or  grief,  are,  O!  oh 
ah!  alas!  Such  as  are  expressive  of  contempt,  are  pish!  tush. 
of  wonder,  ^eig-^ .'  really!  strange!  of  calHng,  ^C7/i .'  ho!  soho  ! 
of  aversion  or  disgust,/©^ /^c'  away!  of  a  call  of  the  attention, 
to  !  behold  !  hark  !  of  requesting  silence,  hush  !  hist !  of  saluta- 
tion, welcome  !  hail !  all  hail !  Besides  these,  several  others,  fre- 
quent in  the  mouths  of  the  multitude,  might  be  enumerated ;  but, 
in  a  grammar  of  a  cultivated  tongue,  it  is  unnecessary  to  expa- 
tiate on  such  expressions  of  passion,  as  are  scarcely  worthy  of 
Being  ranked  among  the  branches  of  artificial  language, — See  (h$ 
Ocpavo  Grammar. 


1 


92  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 

CHAPTER    XI. 

OF  BERIFATIO.y. 

SECTION  I.     Of  the  various  ways  in  tvhich  words  are  deriv^ 

from  one  another. 

HAVING  treated  of  the  different  sorts  of  words,  and  their  A^a- 

rious  modifications,  which  is  the  first  part  of  Etymology,  it  is  now 

proper  to  explaift  the  methods  by  which  one  word  is  derived  from 

another. 

Words  are  derived  from  one  another  in  various  ways  ;  viz.      M 

1.  Substantives  are  derived  from  verbs.  J 

2.  Verbs  are  derived  from  substantives,  adjectives,  and  some 
times  from  adverbs. 

3.  Adjectives  are  derived  from  substantives. 

4.  Substantives  are  derived  from  adjectives. 

5.  Adverbs  are  derived  from  adjectives. 

1.  Substantives  are  derived  from  verbs:  as,  from  "  to  love," 
comes  "lover;''  from  "to  visit,  visiter ;"  from  "to  survive,  sur- 
viver ;"  &c. 

In  the  following  instances,  and  in  many  others,  it  is  difficult  to 
determine  whether  the  verb  was  deduced  from  the  noun,  or  the 
noun  from  the  verb,  viz.  "  Love,  to  love  ;  hate,  to  hate  ;  fear,  to 
fear ;  sleep,  to  sleep  ;  walk,  to  walk  ;  ride,  to  ride  ;  act,  to  act,"  &c. 

2.  Verbs  are  derived  from  substantives,  adjectives,  and  some- 
times from  adverbs :  as,  from  the  substantive  salt,  comes  "  to  salt ;" 
from  the  adjective  warnif  "  to  warm ;"  and  from  the  ad  verb  yb;- 
tvard,  "  to  forward."  Sometimes  they  are  formed  by  lengthen 
ing  the  vowel,  or  softening  the  consonant;  as,  from  "grass,  to 
graze  :"  sometimes  by  adding  en;  as,  from  "length,  to  lengthen ;" 
especially  to  adjectives ;  ls,  from  "  short,  to  shorten  ;  bright,  to 
brighten." 

3.  Adjectives  are  derived  from  substantives,  in  the  following 
manner :  Adjectives  denoting  plenty  are  derived  from  substan- 
tives, by  adding  y :  as,  from  "  Health,  healthy ;  wealth,  wealthy  , 
might,  mighty,"  &c. 

Adjectives  denoting  thematter  out  of  which  any  thing  is  made, 
are  derived  from  substantives  by  adding  en :  as,  from  "  Oak, 
oaken  ;  wood,  wooden ;  wool,  woolen,"  &c. 

Adjectives  denoting  abundance  are  derived  from  substantives, 
by  Siddmg ful :  as,  from  "  Joy,  joyful ;  sin,  sinful ;  fruit,  fruitful,"&c. 

Adjectives  denoting  plenty,  but  with  some  kind  of  diminution, 
are  derived  from  substantives,  by  adding  some  :  as,  from  "  Light, 
lightsome  ;   trouble,  troublesome  ;  toil,  toilsome,"  &c. 

Adjectives  denoting  want,  are  derived  from  substantives,  by 
adding  less :  as,  from  "  Worth,  worthless ;"  from  "  care,  careless  ; 
joy,  joyless,"  &c. 

Adjectives  denoting  likeness  are  derived  from  substantives,  by 
adding  ly :  as,  from  "  Man,  manly  ;  earth,  earthly  ;  court, 
courtly,"  &c. 

Some  adjectives  are  derived  from  other  adjectives,  or  ffom 
substantives,  by  adding  ish  to  them ;  which  termination,  when 


ETYMOLOGY.  93 

added  to  adjectives,  imports  diminution,  or  lessening  the  quality : 
as,  "Wliiie,  Avliitish  ;"  i.e.  somewhat  white.  When  added  to 
suhstantives,  it  signifies  similitude  or  tendency  to  a  character :  as, 
"  child,  childish  ;  thief,  thievish." 

Some  adjectives  are  formed  from  substantives  or  verbs,  by 
adding  the  termination  ablt ;  and  those  adjectives  signify  capa- 
city :  as,  "  Answer,  answerable  ;  to  change,  changeable." 

4.  Substantives  are  derived  from  adjectives,  sometimes  by 
adding  the  termination  ness  :  as,  "White,  whiteness;  swift, 
nwifiness:"  sometimes  by  adding  th  or  t,  nnd  making  a  small 
change  in  some  of  the  letters :  as,  "  Long,  length  ;  high,  height.'* 

5.  Adverbs  of  quality  are  derived  from  adjectives,  by  adding 
/ly,  or  changing  le  into  /?/,  and  denote  the  same  quality  as  the 
adjectives  from  which  they  are  derived:  as,  from  "base,'* 
comes  "basely;"  from  "  slow,  slowly ;"  from  "able,  ably." 

There  are  so  many  other  ways  of  deriving  words  from  one 
another,  that  it  would  be  extremely  difficult,  and  nearly  impossi- 
ble, to  enumerate  them.  The  primitive  words  of  any  language 
are  very  few;  the  derivatives  form  much  the  greater  number. 
A  few  more  instances  only  can  be  given  here. 

Some  substantives  are  derived  from  other  substantives,  by 
adding  the  terminations  hood  or  headf  shipf  ery,  wick,  rick,  (lofiif 
ian,  mentj  and  age. 

Substantives  ending  in  hood  or  head,  are  such  as  signify  cha- 
racter or  qualities:  as,  "  Manhood,  knighthood,  falsehood,"  &c. 

Substantives  ending  in  ship,  are  those  that  signify  office,  em- 
ployment, state,  or  condition  :  as,  "  Lordship,  stewardship,  part 
nership,"  &.c.    Some  substantives  in  ship,  are  derived  from  ad- 
jectives: as,  "  Hard,  hardship,"  &c. 

Substantives  which  end  in  ery,  signify  action  or  habit:  as, 
"  Slavery,  foolery,  prudery,"  &c.  Some  substantives  of  this  sort 
come  from  adjectives ;  as,  "  Brave,  bravery,"  &c. 

Substantives  ending  in  tvick,  rick,  and  dom,  denote  dominion, 
jurisdiction,  or  condition  :  as,  "  Bailiwick,  bishoprick,  kingdom, 
dukedom,  freedom,"  &c. 

Substantives  which  end  in  ian,  are  those  that  signify  profession , 
as,  "Physiv/ian,  musician,"  &c.  Those  that  end  in  ment  and  age^ 
come  generally  from  the  French,  and  commonly  signify  the  act 
or  habit:  as,  "Commandment,  usage." 

Some  substantives  ending  in  ard,  are  derived  from  verbs  or 
adjectives,  and  denote  character  or  habit :  as, "  Drunk,  drunkard  ; 
vlote,  dotard." 

Some  substantives  have  the  form  of  diminutives ;  but  these 
are  not  many.  They  are  formed  by  adding  the  termination!, 
kin,  ling,  ing,  ock,  el^  and  the  like  :  as,  "  Lamb,  lambkin  ;  goose, 
gosling  ;  duck,  duckling  ;  hill,  hillock  ;  cock,  cockerel,"  &c. 

That  ])art  of  derivation  which  consists  in  tracing  English 
words  to  the  Saxon,  Greek,  Latin,  French,  and  other  languages, 
must  be  omitted,  as  the  English  scholar  is  not  suppose<l  to  be 
acquainted  with  these  languages.  .  The  bent  English  dictionft- 


94  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 

ric3  will,  liowever,  farnisb  some  information  on  this  head,  t« 
those  who  are  desirous  of  obtaining  it.  The  learned  Home 
Tooke,  in  his  "Diversions  of  PnrU^y,"  has  given  an  ingenious 
account  of  the  derivation  and  meaning  of  many  of  the  adverbs, 
conjunctions,  and  })repositions. 

It  is  highly  probable  that  the  system  of  this  acute  grammarian, 
is  founded  in  truth  ;  and  that  adverbs,  prepositions,  and  con- 
junctions, are  corruj)tions  or  abbreviations  of  other  parts  of 
speech.  But  as  many  Of  tliern  are  derived  from  oljsolete  words 
jn  our  own  language,  or  f»-oin  words  in  kindred  languages,  the  rad- 
ical meaning  of  which  is,  therefore,  either  obscure,  or  generally 
unknown;  as  the  system  of  this  very  able  etymologist  is  not 
universally  admitted  ;  and  as,  by  long  prescription,  whatever 
may  have  been  their  origin,  the  words  in  question  appear  to  have 
acquired  a  title  to  the  rank  of  distinct  species  ;  it  seems  proper  to 
consider  them,  as  such,  in  an  elementary  treatise  of  grammar- 
especially  as  this  plan  coincides  with  that,  by  which  other  lan- 
guages must  be  taught  ;  and  will  render  the  study  of  them  less 
intricate.  It  is  of  small  moment,  by  what  names  and  classifica- 
tion we  distinguish  these  words,  provided  their  meaning  and 
use  are  well  understood.  A  philosophical  consideration  of  the 
subject  may,  with  great  propriety,  be  entered  upon  by  the  gram- 
matical student,  when  his  knowledge  and  judgment  become  more 
improved. 

SECTION  II.     ^1  sketch  of  the  steps,  hy  which  the  Enjs:lish  Law 
guage  has  risen  to  its  present  state  of  refinement. 

Before  we  conclude  the  subject  of  derivation,  it  will  proba- 
bly bo  gratifying  to  the  curious  scholar,  to  be  informed  of  some 
particulars  respecting  the  origin  of  the  English  language,  and 
the  various  nations  to  which  it  is  indebted  for  the  copiousness, 
elegance,  and  refinement,  which  it  has  now  attained. 

"  When  the  ancient  Britons  were  so  harassed  and  oppressed 
by  the  invasions  of  their  northern  neighbours,  the  Scots  and 
Picts,  that  their  situation  was  truly  miserable,  they  sent  an  em- 
bassy (about  the  middle  of  the  fifth  century)  to  the  Saxons,  a 
warlike  people  inhabiting  the  north  of  Germany,  with  solicita- 
tions for  speedy  relief.  The  Saxons  accordingly  came  over  to 
Britain,  and  were  successful  in  repelling  the  incursions  of  the 
Scots  and  Picts ;  but  i?eeing  the  weak  and  defenceless  state  o 
the  Britons,  they  resolved  to  take  advantage  of  it ;  and  at  length 
established  themselves  in  the  greater  part  of  South-Britain,  after 
having  dispossessed  the  original  inhabitants. 

"  From  these  barbarians,  who  founded  several  petty  kingdoms 
in  this  island,  and  introduced  their  own  laws,  language,  and 
manners,  is  derived  the  groundwork  of  the  English  language  \ 
which,  even  in  its  present  state  of  cultivation,  and  notwithstand- 
ing the  successive  augmentations  and  improvements,  winch  it 
bas  received  through  various  channels,  displays  very  conspicu- 
ous traces  of  its  Saxon  original. 


ETYxMOLOGY.  95 

"The  Saxons  did  not  long  remain  in  quiet  possession  of  tlie 
kingdom  ;  for  before  the  middle  of  the  ninth  century,  the  Danes 
a  hardy  and  adventurous  nation,  who  had  long  infested  the 
northern  seas  with  their  piracies,  began  to  ravage  the  English 
coasts.  Their  first  attempts  were,  in  general,  attended  with 
such  success,  that  they  were  encouraged  to  a  renewal  of  their 
ravages  ;  till,  at  length,  in  the  beginning  of  the  eleventh  century, 
they  made  themselves  masters  of  the  greater  part  of  England. 

"Though  the  period,  during  which  these  invaders  occupied 
the  English  throne,  was  very  short,  not  greatly  exceeding  half  a 
century,  it  is  highly  probable  that  some  change  was  introduced 
by  them  into  the  language  spoken  by  those,  whom  they  had 
subdued :  but  this  change  cannot  be  supposed  to  have  been  very 
considerable,  as  the  Danish  and  Saxon  languages  arose  from  one 
common  source,  the  Gothic  being  the  parent  of  both. 

"The  next  conquerors  of  this  kingdom,  after  the  Danes,  were 
the  Normans,  who,  in  the  year  1066,  introduced  their  leader 
Wuliani  to  the  possession  of  the  English  throne.  This  prince, 
soon  after  his  accession,  endeavoured  to  bring  his  own  language 
(,the  Norman-French)  into  use  among  his  new  subjects  ;  but  his 
efforts  were  not  very  successful,  as  the  Saxons  entertained  a 
great  antipathy  to  these  haughty  foreigners.  In  process  of  time, 
nowever,  many  Norman  words  and  phrases  were  incorporated 
intt  the  Saxon  language  :  but  its  general  form  and  construction 
8tUl  remained  the  same. 

"From  the  Conquest  to  the  Reformation,  the  language  con 
tinned  to  receive  occasional  accessions  of  foreign  words,  till  it 
acquired  such  a  degree  ofcopiousness  and  strength,  as  to  render 
it  susceptible  of  that  polish,  which  it  has  received  from  writers 
of  taste  and  genius,  in  the  last  and  present  centuries.  During 
this  period,  the  learned  have  enriched  it  with  many  significant 
expressions,  drawn  from  the  treasures  of  Greek  and  Roman 
literature;  the  ingenious  and  the  fashionable  have  imported  oc- 
casional supplies  of  French,  Spanish,  Itahan,  and  German  words, 
gleaned  during  their  foreign  excursions ;  and  the  connexions 
which  we  maintahi,  through  the  medium  of  government  and 
commerce,  with  many  remote  nations,  have  made  some  addi- 
tions to  our  native  vocabulary. 

"  In  this  manner  did  the  ancient  language  of  the  Anglo-Saxons 
proceed,  through  the  various  stages  of  innovation,  and  the  several 
gradations  of  refinement,  to  the  formation  of  the  present  Eng- 
lish tongue." 

iSiee  the  Twelfth  Chapter  of  the  Octavo  Grammar, 


PART  III. 
SYJVT^X. 


I 


The  third  part  of  Grammar  is  Syntax,  ^vhich  treats  of 
the  agreement  and  construction  of  words  in  a  sentence. 

A  sentence  is  an  assemblage  of  words,  forming  a  com 
plete  sense. 

Sentences  are  of  two  kinds,  simple  and  compound. 

A  simple  sentence  has  in  it  but  one  subject,  and  one 
finite*  verb  :  as,  "  Life  is  short." 

A  compound  sentence  consists  of  two  or  more  simple 
sentences  connected  together :  as,  "  Life  is  short,  and  art  is 
long."  *'  Idleness  produces  want,  vice,  and  misery." 

As  sentences  tlieinselves  are  div'uied  into  simple  and  compound, 
so  the  mend)ers  of  sentences  may  be  divided  likewise  into  simple 
and  compound  members ;  for  whole  sentences,  whether  simi)le 
or  compounded,  may  become  members  of  other  sentences,  by 
means  of  some  additional  connexion  ;  as  in  the  following  exam- 
ple :  "  The  ox  knoweth  his  owner,  and  the  ass  his  master's 
crib ;  but  Israel  doth  not  know,  my  people  do  not  consider." 
This  sentence  consists  of  two  conjj)ounded  members,  each  of 
which  is  subdivided  into  two  simple  members,  which  are  properly 
called  clauses. 

There  are  three  sorts  of  siniple  sentences ;  the  explicative,  or 
explaining  ;  the  interrogative,  or  asking  ;  the  imperative,  or  com- 
manding. 

An  explicative  sentence  is  when  a  thing  is  said  to  be  or  not  to 
be,  to  do  or  not  to  do,  to  suffer  or  not  suffer,  in  a  direct  manner: 
as,  "  I  am  ;  thou  writest;  Tliomas  is  loved."  If  the  sentence  be 
negative,  the  adverb  not  is  i)lace<l  after  the  auxiliary,  or  after  the 
verb  itself  when  it  has  no  auxiliary  :  as,  "  1  did  not  touch  him ;" 
or,  "  I  touched  him  not." 

In  an  interrogative  sentence,  orwlien  a  question  is  asked,  the 
nominative  case  follows  the  principal  verb  or  the  auxiliary:  as, 
"Was  ithe.^"  "Did  Alexander  conquer  the  Persians  ?" 

In  an  imperative  sentence,  when  a  thing  is  commanded  to  be, 
to  do,  to  suffer,  or  not,  the  nominative  case  likewise  follows  the 
verb  or  the  auxiliary:  as,  "  Go,  thou  traitor!"  "Do  thou  go:" 
"  Haste  ye  away :"  unless  the  verb  let  be  used  ;  as,  "  Let  us  be 
gone." 

A  phrase  is  two  or  more  words  rightly  put  together, 
making  sometimes  part  of  a  sentence,  and  sometimes 
a  whole  sentence. 

*  FtmVc  verbs  are  those  to  which  number  and  peison  apj[)ertaiii.  Verbs  in  tho 
infinitive  mood  have  no  res})€ct  to  number  or  person. 


Rule  I.]  SYx\TAX.  97 

The  principal  parts  of  a  simple  sentence  are.  the  subject, 
the  attribute,  and  the  object. 

The  subject  is  the  thing  chiefly  spoken  of;  the  attribute 
is  the  thing  or  action  affirmed  or  denied  of  it ;  and  t{ie  ob- 
ject is  the  thing  atfected  by  such  action 

The  nominative  denotes  the  subject,  and  usually  goes  be- 
fore the  verb  or  attribute  ;  and  the  word  or  phrase,  denoting 
the  object,  follows  the  verb  ;  as,  '*  A  wise  man  governs  his 
passions.'  Here,  a  zotse  man  is  the  subject;  governs,  the  at 
tribute,  or  thkig  affirmed  ;  and  his  passions,  the  object. 

Syntax  principally  consists  of  two  parts,  Concord  and  Go 
vcrnment. 

Concord  is  the  agreement  which  one  word  has  with 
another,  in  gender,  number,  case,  or  person. 

Government  is  that  power  which  one  part  of  speech  has 
over  another,  in  directing  its  mood,  tense,  or  case. 

To  produce  the  agreement  and  right  disposition  of  words 
in  a  sentence,  the  following  rules  and  observations  should 
be  carefully  studied. 

RULE  I. 

A  Verb  must  agree  with  its  nominative  case,  in  number 
and  person  :  as,  "  I  learn;"  ''  Thou  art  improved  ;"  **  The 
birds  sing." 

The  following  are  a  few  instances  of  the  violation  of  this  rule. 
"  What  signifies  good  opinions,  when  our  practice  is  had  ?"  "  what 
signifi/,^^  "  There's  two  or  three  of  us,  who  have  seen  the  work:" 
"  tliere  crrc."  "  We  may  suppose  there  was  nore  impostors  than 
one  :"  "  There  tvere  more."  "  I  have  considered  what  have  been 
gsiid  on  hoth  sides  in  this  controversy  :"  "  what  has  been  said." 
"  If  thou  wou^d  he  liealthy,  live  temperately  :"  "if thou  ivouldsV^ 
"  Thou  sees  how  Uttle  has  been  done.:"  "  thou  seest"  "  Though 
thou  cannot  do  much  for  the  cause,  thou  may  and  should  do 
something:"  ^^  canst  not,  mayst,  and  shouldst.^^  "  Full  many  a 
dower  are  born  to  blush  unseen  :"  "t*  born."  "  A  conformity  of 
inclinations  and  qualities  y)ropare  us  for  friendship:"  *'/;re/?are5 
us."  *'  A  variety  of  blessings  have  been  conferred  upon  us :" 
'*  ha^  been."  "  In  piety  and  virtue  consist  the  happiness  of  man :" 
"  consists."  "  To  these  precepts  are  subjoined  a  copious  selec- 
tion of  rules  and  maxims:"  "i5  subjoined." 

"*!.  The  infinitive  mood,  or  ]>art  of  a  sentence,  is  sometimes 
put  as  the  nominative  case  to  the  verb  :  as,  "To  see  the  sun  is 
pleasant ;"  "  To  be  good  is  to  be  happy  ;"  "  A  desire  to  excel 
others  in  learning  and  virtue  t5  commendable;"  "That  warm 

*  The  chief  practical  notes  under  each  Rule,  are  regularly  numbered,  in  crdei 
to  nmke  tliem  correspond  to  the  examples  in  the  voluine  of  Exercisei. 


98  ENGLISH    GRAMMAR.  [Rule  t 

cliinatcs  should  accelerate  the  growth  of  the  huninn  body,  and 
shorten  its  duration,  is  very  rc:asoua})le  to  believe  ;"  "  To  be 
temperate  in  eating  and  drinking,  to  use  exercise  in  the  oj)en 
air.  and  to  preserve  the  tnind  free  from  tumuhuous  emotions, arc 
the  best*  preservatives  of  health." 

2  Every  verb,  except  in  the  infinitive  mood,  or  the  participle, 
ought  to  have  a  nominative  case,  either  expressed  or  implied 
"Awake  ;  arise  ;''  that  is,  "  A  wake  ye  ;  arise  ye." 

We  shall  here  add  some  exani})les  of  inaccuracy,  in  the  use 
the  verb  without  its  nominative  case.  "  As  it  hath  pleased  him 
of  his  goodness  to  give  you  safe  deliverance,  and  hath  pieserved 
you  in  the  great  danger,"  «Sic.  The  verb  "  hath  preserved,^''  has  here 
no  nominative  case,  for  it  cannot  be  j)ropLrly  supplied  by  the  pre- 
ceding word,  ^' hijn,''^  which  is  in  the  objective  case.  It  ought  to 
be,  "  and  as  he  hath  'preserved  you  ;"  or  rather,  '•  and  to  presence 
you."  "  If  the  calm  iji  which  he  was  born,  and  lasted  so  long 
had  continued  ;"  "and  which  lasted,"  &c,  "  These  we  have  ex- 
tracted from  an  historian  of  undoubted  credit,  and  are  the  same 
that  were  practised,"  c^c;  ^^  and  they  are  the  same."  "A  man 
whose  inclinations  led  him  to  be  corrupt,  and  had  great  abilities 
to  manage  the  business  ;"  "  and  ivho  had,"  &c.  "  A  cloud  ga- 
thering in  the  north ;  which  we  have  hel})ed  to  raise,  and  may 
quickly  break  in  a  storm  upon  our  heads;"  "and  which  may 
quickly." 

3  Every  nominative  case,  except  the  case  absolute,  and  when 
an  address  is  made  to  a  person,  should  belong  to  some  verb 
either  expressed  or  implied :  as,  "  Who  wrote  this  book  .^" 
"  James  ;"  that  is,  "  James  wrote  it."  "  To  whom  thus  Adam," 
that  is,  "  spoke." 

One  or  two  instances  of  the  impro^)er  use  of  the  nominative 
case,  without  any  verb,  expressed  or  implied,  to  answer  it,  may 
be  sufficient  to  illustrate  the  usefulness  of  the  preceding  ob 
servation. 

"  Which  rule,  if  it  had  been  observed,  a  neighbouring  prince 
would  have  wanted  a  great  deal  of  that  incense  v^tich  hath  been 
offered  up  to  him."  The  pronoun  it  is  here  the  nWninative  case 
to  the  verb  "  observed  ;"  and  ichich  rule,  is  left  by  itself,  a  nomi- 
native case  without  any  verb  following  it.  This  form  of  expres- 
sion, though  improper,  is  very  common.  It  ought  to  be,  "  If  this 
'ule  had  been  observed,"  &c.  "  ^an,  though  he  has  great  va- 
liety  of  thoughts,  and  such  from  which  others  as  well  as  himself 
might  receive  profit  and  delight,  yet  they  are  all  within  his  own 
breast."  In  this  sentence,  the  nominative  man  stand?  alone  and 
unconnected  with  any  verb,  either  expressed  or  implied.  It 
should  be,  "  Though  man  has  great  variety,"  &c. 

4  When  a  verb  comes  between  two  nouns,  either  of  which 
maybe  understood  as  the  subject  of  the  affirmation,  it  may  agree 
with  either  of  them :  but  some  regard  must  be  had  to  that  which 
is  more  naturally  the  subject  of  it,  as  also  to  that  which  stands 
next  to  the  verb :  as, "  Hismeatu^w locusts  and  wild  honey  ;"^*  A, 


Rule  i.]  SYNTAX.  9<) 

great  cause  of  the  low  gtate  of  industry  were  ilje  restraints  put 
upon  it ;"  "  The  wages  of  sin  is  death." 

5  When  the  nominative  case  lias  no  personal  tense  of  a  verb, 
but  is  pur  before  a  participle,  indepeiideiuiy  on  the  rest  of  the 
sentence,  it  is  called  the  case  ahsolute  :  as,  "  Shame  being  lost, 
all  virtue  is  iost ;"  "  That  having  been  discussed  long  ago,  there 
is  no  occasion  to  resume  it." 

As  in  the  use  of  the  case  absolute,  the  case  is,  in  English, 
always  the  nominative,  the  following  example  is  erroneous,  in 
making  it  the  objective.  "  Solomon  was  of  this  mind  ;  and  I 
have  no  doubt  he  made  as  wise  and  true  proverbs,  as  any  body 
has  done  since  ;  him  only  excepted,  who  was  a  much  greater  and 
wiser  man  than  Solomon."     It  should  be,  "  he  only  excepted." 


The  nominative  case  is  commonly  placed  before  the  verb  ;  but 
Bometimes  it  is  put  after  the  verb,  if  it  is  a  simple  tense ;  and 
betAveen  the  auxiliary,  and  the  verb  or  participle,  if  a  compound 
t«nse:  as, 

1st,  When  a  question  is  asked,  a  command  given,  or  a  wish 
expressed  :  as,  "  Confidest  thou  in  me  .^"  "Read  thou  ;"  "Mayst 
thou  be  happy  !"  "  Long  hve  the  King  !" 

2d,  When  a  supposition  is  made  without  the  conjunction  if: 
ag,  "  Were  it  not  for  this  ;"  "  Had  I  been  there." 

3d,  When  a  verb  neuter  is  used :  as,  "  On  a  sudden  appeared 
tlije  king." 

4th,  When  the  verb  is  preceded  by  the  adverbs,  here,  there, 
then,  thence,  hence,  thus,  &c. :  as,  "  Here  am  I :"  *'  There  was  he 
slain ;"  "  Then  cometh  the  end  ;"  "  Thence  ariseth  his  grief;" 
**  Hence  proceeds  his  anger  ;"  "  Thus  was  the  affair  settled." 

5th,  When  a  sentence  depends  on  neither  or  nor,  so  as  to  be 
coupled  with  another  sentence:  as,  "Ye  shall  not  eat  of  it, 
neither  shall  ye  touch  it,  lest  ye  die." 

Some  gramnfiaj-ians  assert,  that  the  phrases,  as  follows,  as  ap- 
pears, form  wl^Tare  called  impersonal  vefbs  ;  and  should,  there- 
fore, be  confined  to  the  singular  number:  as,  "The  arguments 
advanced  were  nearly  as  follows  ;"  "  The  positions  were  as  ap- 
pears incontrovertible:"  that  is,  "as  it  follows,"  "as  it  appears." 
If  we  give  (say  they)  the  sentence  a  different  turn,  and  instead  of 
05,  say  such  as,  the  verb  is  no  longer  termed  impersonal  ;  but 
properly  agrees  with  its  nominative,  in  the  plural  number:  as, 
"The  arguments  advanced  were  nearly  such  as  follow  ;^^  "  The 
positions  were  such  as  appear  incontrovertible."* 

*  These  grammarians  are  sripported  b*y  general  usage,  and  by  the  authority 
of  an  eminent  critic  on  language  and  composition.  *'  When  a  verb  is  used  im- 
personally," says  Dr.  Can»pbell,  in  his  Philosophy  of  Rhetoric,  "  it  ought  un- 
doubtedly to  be  in  the  singular  number,  whether  the  neuter  pronoun  be  expressed 
or  understood."  For  this  reason,  analogy  and  usage  favour  this  mode  of  ex- 
nression  :  "  The  conditions  of  the  agreement  were  asjbllotvs  ;"  and  not,  asfbl- 
UiW.     A  few  late  writers  hi;ve   inconsiderately  adopted  this  last  fornj,  througii 


100  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR. 

They  who  doubt  the  accuracy  of  Ilorne  Tooke's  statcinenf. 
"That  aSj  however  and  whenever  used  in  English,  means  the 
same  as  it,  or  that,  or  which  ,•"  and  who  are  not  satisfied  whether 
the  verbs,  in  the  sentence  first  mentioned,  sliould  be  in  the  sin 

fnlar  or  the  phiral  nund)er,  may  vary  tlie  form  of  expression, 
'hus,  the  sense  of  the  ])receding  sentences,  may  be  conveyed  in 
the  following  terms.  "The  arguments  advanced  wero  nearly 
of  the  following  nature  ;"  "The  following  are  nearly  the  argu- 
ments which  were  advanced  ;"  "  Tlie  arguments  advanced  were 
nearly  those  which  follow:"  "  It  a[)pears  that  the  positions  were 
incontrovertible  ;"  "That  the  positions  were  incontrovertible  is 
apparent;"  "The  positions  were  apparently  incontrovertible.*" 
See  the  Octavo  Grammar,  the  Note  under  Rule  I. 
RULE  II. 
Two  or  more  nouns,  &:c.  in  the  singular  number  joined 
together  by  a  copulative  conjunction,  expressed  or  under- 
stood, must  have  verbs,  nouns,  and  pronouns,  agreeing  with 
them  in  the  phiral  number :  as,  **  Socrates  and  Plato  7vere 
wise ;  thei/  were  the  most  eminent  philosophers  of  Greece  ;" 
**  The  sun  that  rolls  over  our  heads,  the  food  that  we  receive, 
the  rest  that  we  enjoy,  daily  admonish  us  of  a  superior  and 
superintending  Power/'* 

This  rule  is  often  violated ;  some  instances  of  which  are  an- 
nexed. "  And  so  was  also  James  and  John,  the  sons  of  Zebedee, 
who  were  partners  with  Simon;"  "and  so  were  also."  "All 
joy,  tranquillity,  and  peace,  even  for  ever  and  ever,  doth  dweil ;" 
^^dwdl  for  ever."  "By  whose  power  all  good  and  evil  is  dis- 
tributed ;"  "  are  distributed."  "  Their  love,  and  their  hatred,  and 
their  envy,  is  now  perished  ;"  "  are  perished.*'  "  The  tivought- 
less  and  intemperate  enjoyment  of  pleasure,  the  criminal  abuse 
of  it,  and  the  forgetfuUiess  of  our  being  accountable  creatures, 
obHterates  every  serious  thought  of  the  proper  business  of  life, 
and  effaces  the  sense  o"^  religion  and  of  God  ;"  It  ought  to  be, 
"  oblileratej''  and  "  c/ace." 

1  When  the  nouns  are  nearly  related,  or  scarcely  distinguish- 
able in  sense,  and  sometimes  even  when  they  are  very  different 
^me  authors  have  thought  it  allowable  to  put  the  verl»s,  nouns, 
and  pronouns,  in  the  singular  number:  as,  "Tranquillity  and 
peace  dwells  there  ;"  "  Ignorance  and  negligence  has  producer! 
the  effect;"  "The  discomfiture  and  slaughter  was  very  great." 
But  it  is  evidently  contrary  to  the  first  principles  of  grannnar,  to 
consider  two  distinct  ideas  as  one,  however  nice  may  be  their 
shades  of  difference:  and  if  theve  be  no  diflference,  one  of  them 
must  be  superfluous,  and  ought  to  Ije  rejected. 

a  mistake  of  the  construction.     For  the  same  reason,  we  ought  to  say,  '•  1  shall 
consider  ills  censures  so  far  only  as  concerns  my  friend's  conduct ;"  and  not  *  w 
far  as  coyicern.* 
»  filee  tl>e  fxce^tions  to  tliis  rule,  at  p.  48  of  the  Key ;  l?Ul  edilioa. 


Mule  ii.]  SYNTAX.  101 

To  support  llie  aliovc  construction,  it  is  said,  that  the  verb 
amy  he  uiulerstood  as  apphetl  to  each  ofthe  preceding  terms  ;  as 
III  the  fcdlovving  example.  "  Sand,  and  sah,  and  a  mass  of  iron, 
%s  easier  to  bear  tiian  a  man  without  understanding."  But  be- 
sides the  (X>nrusion,  and  the  latitude  of  apphcation,  which  such 
a  construction  wouUl  introduce,  it  aj)pears  to  be  more  proper  and 
aiudogical,  in  cases  vvliere  the  verb  is  intended  to  be  applied  to 
any  one  ofthe  terms,  to  make  use  of  the  disjunctive  conjunction, 
wliich  grammatically  refers  the  verb  to  one  or  other  of  the  pre- 
ceding terms  in  a  sej)arate  view.  To  preserve  the  distinctive 
uses  of  the  copulative  and  disjunctive  conjunctions,  wouhl  ren- 
der the  rules  ])recise,  consistent,  and  intelligible.  Dr.  Blair  very 
/.istly  observes,  that  "  two  or  more  substantives,  joined  by  acopu- 
'f  »ve,  must  always  require  the  verb  or  pronoun  to  which  they 
i'cfer,  to  be  placed  in  the  plural  number." 

2  In  many  complex  sentences,  it  is  difficult  for  learners  to 
de^o'-mine,  whether  one  or  more  of  the  clauses  are  to  be  con- 
si(*>^vJ  as  the  nominative  case  ;  and  consequently,  whether  the 
verb  should  l)e  in  the  singular  or  the  plural  number.  We  shall, 
tlierefore,  set  down  a  number  of  varied  examples  of  this  nature, 
whict>  may  serve  as  some  government  to  the  scholar,  with  re- 
spect to  sentences.of  a  similar  construction.  *'  Prosperity,  with 
humility,  renders  its  possessor  truly  amiable."  "The  ship,  with 
all  her  furniture,  was  destroyed."  "  Not  only  his  estate,  his  re- 
putation too  has  suffered  by  his  misconduct."  "The  general 
also,  in  conjunction  with  the  officers,  has  applied  for  redress." 
"  lie  caimot  be  justified  ;  for  it  is  true,  that  the  prince,  as  well  as 
the  people,  was  blameworthy."  "  The  king,  with  his  lifeguard, 
has  just  passed  through  the  village."  "  In  the  mutual  influence 
of  body  and  soul,  there  is  a  wisdom,  a  wonderful  wisdom,  which 
we  cannot  fathom."  "  Virtue,  honour,  nay,  even  self-interest, 
conspii:e  to  recommend  the  measure."  "  Patriotism,  morality, 
every  public  and  private  consideration,  demand  our  submission 
to  just  and  lawful  government."  "  Nothing  delights  me  ro  much 
as  the  works  of  nature." 

In  support  of  such  forms  of  expression  as  the  following,  we 
Kee  the  authority  of  Hume,  l^rie^dqyj  andf  othei*;A^riters  ;  and  we 
niniex  them  for  the  reader's  coiisideration.  "  A'  Jong  course  of 
time,  with  a  variety  of  accidents  andoircujnstaPjces,/zr(»  requisite 
to  produce  those  revolutions/!''^  !',T?^9  kjngy^fitK^l^e/ lords  and 
commons, /on/i  an  excellent  frame  of  government.^*'  "The  side 
A,  with  the  sides  B  and  C,  compose  the  triangle."  "  The  fire 
communicated  itself  to  the  bed,  which,  with  the  furniture  ofthe 
room,  and  a  valuable  library,  ivere  all  entirely  consumed."  It  is, 
liowever,  ])roi)er  to  observe,  that  these  modes  of  expression  do 
not  appear  to  be  warranted  by  the  just  principles  of  construc- 
tion. The  words,  "  A  long  coui*se  of  time,"  "  The  king,"  "  The 
Bide  A,"  and  "  which,"  are  the  true  nominatives  to  the  respect- 
ive verbs.  In  the  last  example,  the  word  all  should  be  expunged. 
Ah  iUe  preposition  with  governs  the  objective  case  in  Englisfa , 

I  2 


loa  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR.  [Rule  iii,  iv 

and,  if  translated  into  Latin,  would  govern  the  ablative  case,  it  \a 
manifest,  that  the  clauses  following  tvith,  in  the  preceding  sen- 
tences, cannot  form  any  part  of  the  nominative  case.  They 
cannot  be  at  the  same  time  in  the  objective  and  the  nominative 
cases.  The  following  sentence  appears  to  be  unexceptionable  ; 
and  may  serve  to  explain  the  others.  "  The  lords  and  commong 
are  essential  branches  of  the  British  constitution  :  the  king,  wi 
them,  forms  an  excellent  frame  of  government."* 

3  If  the  singular  nouns  and  i)ronouns,  which  are  joined  logeth 
by  a  copulative  conjunction,  be  of  several  persons,  in  making 
che  plural  pronoun  agree  with  them  in  person,  the  second  per- 
<!ion  takes  place  of  the  third,  and  the  first  of  both:  as,  "James, 
and  thou,  and  I,  are  attached  to  our  country."  "  Thou  and  ho 
shared  it  between  t/o«^.'' 

RULE  in. 
The  conjunction  disjunctive  has  an  efiect  contrary  to 
that  of  the  conjunction  copulative :  for  as  the  verb,  noun, 
or  pronoun,  is  referred  to  the  preceding  terms  taken  sepa- 
rately, it  must  be  in  the  singular  number:  as,  "Ignorance 
or  negligence  has  caused  this  mistake  ;"  "  John,  James^  or 
Joseph,  intends  to  accompany  me  ;"  "  There  is,  in  many 
minds,  neither  knowledge  nor  understanding.'* 

The  following  sentences  are  variations  from  this  rule  :  "  A  man 
may  see  a  metaphor  or  an  allegory  in  a  picture,  as  well  as  read 
them  in  a  description  ;"  "  read  if."  "  Neither  character  nor  dia- 
logue were  yet  understood ;"  "  was  yet."  "  It  must  indeed  be 
confessed,  that  a  lampoon  or  a  satire  do  not  carry  in  them  robbery 
or  murder  ;"  "  does  not  carry  in  if."  "  Death,  or  some  worse  mis- 
fortune,  soon  divide  them."     It  ought  to  be  "  divides^ 

1  When  singular  pronouns,  or  a  noun  and  pronoun,  of  different 
persons,  are  disjunctively  connected,  the  verb  must  agree  with 
ihat  person  which  is  placed  nearest  to  it :  as,  "  I  or  thou  art  to 
blame;"  "Thou  or  1  am  in  fault;"  "  I,  or  thou,  or  he,  15  tlio 
author  of  it ;"-  "  George  .or  J  am  t'be'  person."  But  it  would  be 
better  to  say  ;'J*  Either  I  im  to  ^Jamo,  or  thou  art,"  &c. 
•  2  When  a  disjunctive  occurs  betwee.xj  a  singular  noun,  or  pro- 
noun, and  &  pUfrcil  orrfe^  thfe;^€?rb  I's  rfeade  to  agree  with  the  plural 
noun  and,'f>r«>uc>u*n':  ffs^  "  Iffgitifer  poverty  nor  riches  were  inju- 
rious to  him ;"  "  I  or  they  were  offended  by  it."  But  in  this  case, 
the  plural  noun  or  pronoun,  when  it  can  conveniently  be  done, 
should  be  placed  next  to  the  verb. 

RULE  IV. 
A  noun  of  multitude,  or  signifying  many,  may  have  a 
verb  or  pronoun  agreeing  with  it,  either  of  the  singular  or 

*  Though  the  construction  will  not  admit  of  a  plural  verb,  the  sentence  would 
eortainly  stand  better  thus:  <*The  king,  the  lorusi  and  the  commons,ybrm  an. 
excellent  constiiutionu** 


Rule  v.]  SYiNTAX.  J03 

plural  number;  yd  not  without  regard  to  the  import  of  the 
word,  as  conveying  unity  or  plurality  of  idea :  as,  "  The 
meeting  was  large ;"  "  The  parliament  is  dissolved  ;"  "  The 
nation  is  powerful  ;'*  "  My  people  do  not  consider :  Ike^ 
have  not  known  me ;"  "The  multitude  eagerly  pursue 
pleasure,  as  their  chief  good  ;"  *'  The  council  were  divided 
in  Iheir  sentiments." 

We  ought  to  consider  whether  the  term  will  immediately  sug- 
gest the  idea  of*  the  iuiml)er  it  represents,  or  whether  it  exhihits 
to  the  mind  the  uieu  of  the  whole  as  one  thing.  In  the  former 
case,  the  verb  ought  to  be  })Uiral ;  in  tJie  latter,  it  ought  co  be 
singular.  Thus,  it  seems  iin])ro[)er  to  say,  "  The  peasantry  goes 
barefoot,  and  the  middle  sort  makes  use  of  wooden  shoes."  It 
would  be  better  to  say,  *'  The  peasantry  go  barefoot,  and  the 
middle  sort  make  use,"  &c.  because  the  idea  in  botb  these  cases, 
IS  tliatof  a  number.  On  the  contrary,  there  is  a  harshness  in 
ihe  following  sentences,  in  which  nouns  of  number  have  verbs 
plural }  because  the  ideas  they  represent  seem  not  to  be  suffi- 
ciently divided  in  the  mind.  "  The  court  of  Rome  loere  not 
without  solicitude."  "  The  house  of  commons  were  of  small 
weight."  "  The  house  of  lords  were  so  much  influenced  by 
these  reasons  "  "  Stephen's  party  were  entirely  broken  up  by 
the  captivity  of  their  leader."  "  An  army  of  twenty-four  thousand 
were  assembled."  "  What  reason  have  the  church  of  Rome  for 
proceeding  in  this  manner  ?"  ^'  There  is  indeed  no  constitution 
so  tame  and  careless  of  their  own  defence."  "  All  the  virtues  ot 
mankind  are  to  be  counted  upon  a  few  fingers,  but /ii5  follies  and 
vices  are  innumerable."  Is  not  mankind  in  this  place  a  noun  of 
multitude,  and  such  as  requires  the  pronoun  referring  to  it  to  he 
in  the  plural  number,  iheir  % 

RULE  V. 

Pronouns  must  always  agree  with  their  antecedents,  and 
the  nouns  for  which  they  stand,  in  gender  and  number :  as, 
"  This  is  the  friend  zohom  1  love  ;"  ''  That  is  the  vice  which 
I  hate  ;"  "  The  king  and  the  queen  had  put  on  their  robes  ;" 
'*  The  moon  appears,  a'nd  she  shines,  but  the  light  is  not  hc7 
own." 

The  relative  is  of  the  same  person  as  the  antecedent,  and 
the  verb  agrees  with  it  accordingly  :  lis,;*'  Thou  who  lovest 
wisdom  ;"  "I  zoho  speak  from  experience." 

Of  this  rule  there  are  many  violations  to  ber'met  "^ith  ;  a  few 
of  which  may  be  sufficient  j;o  put  the  learner  on  his  guard.  "  Each 
of  the  sexes  should  keep  within  its  particular  bounds,  and  con- 
tent themselves  with  the  advantages  of  iheir  particular  districts  :" 
better  thus:  "The  sexes  should  keep  within  their  i)SJ'7i\..ni 
bounds,"  &c.    *'Can  any  one,  on  their.entrance  into  the  *»-crid 


.^  ENGLISH  GllAMMAR.  [Rule  v 

be  fully  secure  that  they  shall   not  be  deceived?"  ^^ on  his  en 
trance,"  and  "  that  he  shall."  "  One  should  not  think  too  favoura- 
bly of  ourselves;"  "of  one's  self,''     "He  Jiad  one  acquaintance 
which  poisoned  his  principles  ;"  ^^  who  poisoned." 

Every  relative  must  have  an  antecedent  to  which  it  refers, 
either  expressed  or  implied  :  as,  "  Who  is  fatal  to  others  is  so  to 
himself;"  that  is,  "  the  man  loho  is  fatal  to  others." 

fVho,  which,  what,  and  the  relative  that,  though  in  the  objective 
case,  are  always  placed  before  the  verb ;  as  are  also  their  com- 
pounds, whoever,  whosoever,  &c.  ;  as,  "  He  whom  ye  seek  f 
"This  is  what,  or  the  thing  which,  or  that  you  want ;"  "  Whom- 
soever you  please  to  appoint." 

ffhat  is  sometimes  applied,  in  a  manner  which  appears  to  be 
exceptionable;  as,  "All  fevers,  except  what  are  called  nervouH." 
&c.  It  would  at  least  be  better  to  say,  "  except  those  which  are 
called  nervous." 

1  Personal  pronouns  being  used  to  supply  the  place  of  tlie 
noun,  are  not  employed  in  the  same  part  of  a  sentence  as  the 
noun  which  they  repriesent ;  for  it  would  be  improper  to  say, 
"The  king  he  is  just ;"  "  I  saw  her  the  queen  ;"  "  The  men  thtif 
were  there  ;"  "  Many  words  they  darken  speech  ;"  "  My  banks 
they  are  furnished  with  bees."  These  personals  are  superfluous, 
as  there  is  not  the  least  occasion  for  a  substitute  in  the  same 
part  where  the  principal  word  is  present.  Tlie  nommative  case 
they,  in  the  following  sentence,  isalso  superfluous;  "  Who,  in- 
stead of  going  about  doing  good,  they  are  perpetually  intent  U})on 
doing  mischief." 

2  The  pronoun  thai  is  frequently  applied  to  persons  as  well  as 
to  things;  but  after  an  adjective  in  the  superlative  degree,  and 
after  the  pronominal  adjective  same,  it  is  generally  used  in  pre- 
ference to  who  or  which :  as,  "  Charles  XII.  king  of  Sweden, 
was  one  of  the  greatest  madmen  that  the  world  eCer  saw ;" 
"Cataline's  followers  were  the  most  profligate  that  could  be 
found  in  any  city."  "  He  is  the  same  man  that  we  saw  before." 
There  are  cases  wherein  we  cannot  conveniently  dispense  with 
this  relative  as  applied  to  persons :  as  first,  after  who  the  in- 
terrogative; "Who  that  has  any  sense  of  religion,  would  have 
argued  thus  ?"  Secondly,  when  persons  make  but  a  part  of  the 
antecedent ;  "  The  woman,  and  the  estate,  that  became  his  por- 
tion, were  too  much  for  his  moderation."  In  neither  of  these 
examples  could  any  other  relative  have  been  used. 

3  The  pronouns  tohichsoever,  whosoever,  and  the  like,  are  ele- 
gantly divided  by  the  interposition  of  the  corresponding  su))- 
stantives:  thus,  "  On  whichsoever  side  the  king  cast  his  eyes  ;" 
would  hava  sounded  better,  if  written,  "  On  which  side  so- 
ever," &c, 

4  Many  persons  are  apt,  in  conversation,  to  put  the  objective 
case  of  the  personal  pronouns,  in  the  place  of  these  and  those  : 
as,  "Give  me  them  books;"  instead  of  ^^ those  books."  We 
may  sometimes  find  this  fault  eveu  in  writing:  as,  "Observe 


Rule  v.]  ^     ^    SYNTAX, 

them  three  there."  We  also  frequently  meet  with  those  instead 
of  they^  at  the  beginning  of  a  sentence,  and  where  there  is  no 
particular  reference  to  an  antecedent;  as,  "  Those  that  sow  in 
tears,  sometimes  reap  in  joy,"  They  that,  or  they  who  sow 
in  tears. 

It  is  not,  however,  always  easy  to  say,  whether  a  personal 
pronoun  or  a  demonstrative  is  preferable,  in  certain  constructions. 
**  We  are  not  (Uiacquainted  with  the  calumny  of  them  [or  those] 
who  openly  make  use  of  the  warmest  professions." 

5  In  some  dialects,  the  word  ivhat  is  improperly  used  for  thai, 
and  sometimes  we  find  it  in  this  sense  in  writing  :  "They  wilt 
never  beheve  but  tvhat  I  have  been  entirely  to  blame."  "  I  am 
not  satisfied  but  what,"  &c.  instead  of  "  but  that,^^  The  w^ord 
$om(:iohcU,  m  the  following  sentence,  seems  to  be  used  impro- 
j>erly.  "  These  punishments  seein  to  have  been  exercised  h\ 
somewhat  an  arbitrary  manner."  Sometimes  we  read,  "In 
somewhat  of."  The  meaning  is,  "  in  a  manner  which  is  in  some 
respects  arbitrary." 

G  The  pronoun  reJative  who  is  so  much  apropriated  to  per- 
sons, that  there  is  generally  harshness  in  the  application  of  it, 
except  to  the  proper  names  of  persons,  or  the  general  terms  man^ 
woman,  Sze.  A  term  which  only  implies  the  idea  of  persons, 
aiid  expresses  them  by  some  circumstance  or  epithet,  will  hardly 
authorize  the  use  of  it:  as,  "That  faction  in  England  tcho  most 
l^werfully  opposed  his  arbitrary  pretensions."  "  That  faction 
which,^^  would  have  been  better;  and  the  same  remark  will  serve 
for  the  following  examples  :  "  France,  ivho  was  in  alliance  with 
Sweden."  "The  court,  w/io,"  &c.  "The  cavalry,  t^'/io,"  &c 
**  The  cities  ivho  aspired  at  liberty."  "  That  party  among  us 
UfhOj'^  &.C.     "The  family  whom  they  consider  as  usurpers." 

In  some  cases  it  may  be  doubtful,  whether  this  pronoun  is 
profjerly  applied  or  not :  as,  "  The  number  of  substar.tial  inhabit- 
ants with  whom  some  cities  abound."  For  when  a  term"  directly 
and  necessarily  implies  persons,  it  may  in  many  cases  claim  the 
personal  relative.  "  None  of  the  company  ivhom  he  most  affected, 
fould  cure  him  of  the  melancholy  under  which  he  laboured." 
The  word  acquaintance  may  have  the  same  construction. 

7  We  hardly  consider  little  children  as  persons,  because 
that  term  gives  us  the  idea  of  reason  and  reflection:  and  there- 
fore the  application  of  the  [)ersonal'  relative  who,  in  this  case, 
seems  to  be  harsh  :  "A  cbild  ?f;/io."  It  is  still  more  imi)roperiy 
applied  to  animals:  "A  lake  fre<|uented  by  that  fowl  whom  na 
ture  has  taught  to  dip  the  w  ing  in  water." 

8  When  the  name  of  a  person  is  used  merely  as  a  name,  and 
it  does  not  refei'^to  the  person,  the  pronoun  whoou^ht  not  to  be 
appliied.  "It  is  no  wonder  if  such  a  man  did  not  shine  at  the 
court  of  queen  Elizabeth,  who  was  but  another  name  for  prudence 
and  economy."  Better  thus";  "whose  name  was  but  another 
word  for  prudence,  &e."  The.  word  whose  begins  likewise  to  be 
railricted  to  persons;  yet  it  is  not  done  so  generally,  but  that 


!06  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR.  [Rule  v 

good  writers,  even  in  prose,  n.^e  it  when  speaking  of  tliingj*. 
The  construction  is  not,  however,  f^enerally  pleasing,  as  we  way 
see  in  the  following  instances  :  "  Pleasure,  whose  nature,  &c.*' 
"Call  every  production,  ivhose  pans  and  ivhose  nature,"  &c. 

In  one  case,  however,  custom  authorizes  us  to  use  ivhich,\y\th 
respect  to  persons;  and  that  is  when  we  want  to  distinguish 
one  person  of  two,  or  a  particular  person  among  a  number  ol 
others.  We  should  then  say,  "  JVhick  of  ti>e  two,"  or  "  Which 
of  them,  is  he  or  she?" 

9  As  the  pronoun  relative  has  no  distinction  of  number,  we 
sometimes  find  an  ambiguity  in  the  use  of  it:  as  when  we  say, 
"  The 'disciples  of  Christ,  w^om  we  imitate  :"  w^e  may  mean  the 
imitation  either  of  Christ,  or  of  his  disciples.  The  accuracy  and 
clearness  of  the  sentence,  depend  very  much  u[)on  the  proper 
and  determinate  use  of  the  relative,  so  that  it  may  readily  pre- 
sent its  antecedent  to  the  mind  of  the  heaier  or  reader,  without 
any  obscurity  or  ambiguity. 

10  It  is  and  it  ivas^  are  often,  after  the  manner  of  the  Frencli, 
used  in  a  plural  construction,  and  by  some  of  our  best  writers  : 
as,  "  It  is  either  a  few  great  men  who  decide  for  the  whole,  or 
it  is  the  rabble  that  follow  a  seditious  ringleader ;"  "  It  is  they 
that  are  the  real  authors,  thotigh  the  soldiers  are  the  actors  ot 
the  revolution  ;"'  "  It  was  the  heretics  that  first  began  to  rail,"  &c. ; 
"'Ti5  ^/ie5C  that  early  taint  tlie  female  mind."  This  license  in 
the  construction  of  it  is,  (if  it  be  proper  to  admit  it  at  all,)  has, 
however,  been  certainly  abused  in  the  following  sentence,  which 
is  thereby  made  a  very  awkward  one.  *'  It  is  wonderful  the 
very  few  accidents,  which,  in  several  years,  happen  from  this 
practice." 

11  The  interjections  0/  Oh  I  and  Ah!  require  the  objective 
case  of  a  pronoun  in  the  first  person  after  them  :  as.  "  O  me ! 
Oh  mo  !  Ah  me  !"  But  the  nominative  case  in  the  second  person  : 
as,  "O  thou  persecutor  1"  "Oh  ye  hypocrites  I"  "O  thou,  who 
dwellest,"  &c. 

The  neuter  pronoun,  by  an  idiom  })eculiar  to  the  English 
language,  is  frequently  joined  in  explanatory  sentences,  with  a 
noun  or  y)ronoun  of  tho  mah-^iline  or  feminine  gender:  as,  **  It 
was  I;"  "It  was  the  man  or  woman  that  did  it." 

The  neuter  ])ronoun  it  is  sometimes  omitted  and  understood  ; 
thus  we  say,  "  As  appears,  4is  follows  ;"  for  "  As  it  appears,  as 
it  follows;"  and  "Maybe,"  for  "  It  may  be." 

The  neuter  pronoun  it  is  sometimes  employed  to  express ; 

1st,  The  subject  of  any  discourse  or  inquiry  :  as,  "  It  happened 
on  a  summer's  day;^'  "  Who  is  it  that  calls  on  me?" 

9d,  The  state  or  condition  of  any  person  or  thtng:  as,  "  How 
is  it  with  you  ?" 

3d,  The  thing,  whatever  it  be,  that  is  the  cause  of  any  eflect  or 
event,  or  any  person  considered  merely  as  a  cause :  as,  "  VVe 
heard  her  say  it  was  not  he  ;"  "  The  truth  is,  it  was  1  that  helped 
t.Gr." 


Rule  vi.j  SYNTAX.  107 

RULE  VI. 

The  relative  is  the  nominative  case  to  the  verb  when  no 
nominative  comes  between  it  and  the  verb  :  as,  "  The  mas- 
ter who  taught  us  ;"  "  The  trees  which  are  planted." 

When  a  nominative  comes  between  the  relative  and  the 
verb,  the  relative  is  governed  by  some  word  in  its  own  mem- 
ber of  the  sentence :  as,  "  He  who  preserves  me,  to  whom  I 
owe  my  being,  whose  1  am,  and  whom  I  serve,  is  eternal." 

Tn  the  several  members  of  the  last  sentence,  the  relative  per- 
forms a  different  office.  In  the  first  member,  it  marks  the  agent ; 
in  the  second,  it  submits  to  tlie  government  of  the  preposition  ; 
in  the  third,  it  represents  the  possessor ;  and  in  the  fourth,  the 
object  of  an  action  :  and  therefore  it  must  be  in  the  three  different 
cases,  corres])ondenc  to  those  offices. 

When  both  the  antecedent  and  relative  become  nominatives, 
each  to  different  verbs,  the  relative  is  the  nominative  to  the 
former,  and  the  antecedent  to  the  latter  verb :  as,  ^^  True  phi- 
hsophy,  which  is  the  ornament  of  our  nature,  consists  more  in 
the  love  of  our  duty,  and  the  practice  of  virtue,  than  in  gretA 
talents  and  extensive  knowledge." 

A  few  instances  of  erroneous  construction,  will  illustrate  both 
the  branches  of  the  sixth  rule.  The  three  following  refer  to  the 
first  part.  "  How  can  we  avoid  being  grateful  to  those  whom,  by 
repeafed  kind  offices,  have  proved  themselves  our  real  friends  !'* 
*•  These  are  the  men  whom,  you  might  suppose,  were  the  authors 
of  the  work  :"  "  If  you  were  here,  you  would  find  three  or  four, 
whom  you  would  say  ])assed  their  time  agreeably  :"  in  all  these 
places  it  should  be  ivho  instead  of  xohom.  The  two  latter  sen- 
tences contain  a  nominative  between  the  relative  and  the  verb  ; 
and,  therefore,  seem  to  contravene  the  rule  :  but  the  student  will 
reflect,  that  it  is  not  the  nominative  of  the  verb  with  which  the 
relative  is  connected.  The  remaining  examples  refer  to  the 
second  part  of  the  rule.  "  Men  of  fine  talents  are  not  always 
the  persons  who  we  should  esteem."  "  The  persons  who  you 
dispute  with,  are  precisely  of  your  opinion."  "  Our  tutors  are 
our  benefactors,  who  we  owe  obedi^ice  to,  and  who  we  ought 
to  love."  In  these  sentences,  whom  should  be  used  instead  of  who, 

1  When  the  relative  pronoun  is  of  the  interrogative  kind,  the 
noun  or  pronoun  containing  the  answer,  must  be  in  the  same 
case  as  that  which  contains  the  question:  as,  "  Whose  books  are 
rhese  ?  They  are  John's.'^  '' JFho  gave  them  to  him?  ffe." 
'*  Of  ichom  did  you  buy  them  ?  Of  a  bookseller  ;  him  who  lives 
at  the  Bible  and  Crown."  "  WTiom  did  you  see  there  ?  Both 
him  and  the  shopman."  The  learner  will  readily  comprehend 
this  rule,  by  supplying  the  words  which  are  understood  in  the 
answers. — Thus,  to  express  the  answers  at  large,  we  should  say, 
"  They  are  John's  books."  "  We  gave  them  to  him."  "  Wo 
bought  theun  of  him  who  lives,  &^c."     "  We-  saw  both  him  and 


108  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR.      [RLLETn,Tin 

the  fc^bopman/' — As  the  relative  pronoun,  when  used  interro- 
gatively, I'efers  to  the  subsequent  word  or  phrase  containing  the 
answer  to  the  question,  that  ^vord  or  phrase  may  properly  be 
termed  the  subsequent  to  the  interrogative, 

RULE   VIL  fl 

Wlieii  the  relative  is  preceded  by  two  nominatives  of  dK 
fereut  persons,  the  relative  and  verb  may  agree  in  person 
with  either^ according  to  the  sense:  as,  "I  am  the  man 
toh^  command  you ;"  or,  "  I  am  the  man  who  commands  you/ 

The  form  of  the  first  of  the  two  preceding  sentences,  expresses 
the  meaning  rather  obscurely.  It  would  be  more  perspicuous 
to  say ;  *•  I,  who  command  you,  am  the  man."  Perhaps  the  dif- 
ference of  meaning,  produced  by  referring  the  relative  to  differ- 
ent antecedents,  will  be  more  evident  to  the  learner,  in  the  fol- 
l9wing  sentences :  "  I  am  the  general  who  givts  the  orders  to- 
day ;"  "  I  am  the  general,  who  give  the  orders  to-day  ;''  that  is, 
"  I,  who  give  the  orders  to-day,  am  the  general.* 

When  the  relative  and  the  verb  have  been  determined  to  agree 
with  either  of  the  preceding  nominatives,  that  agreement  must 
be  preserved  throughout  the  sentence ;  as  in  the  following  in- 
stance :  "  I  am  the  Lord  that  maktth  all  things  ;  that  stretcheth 
forth  the  heavens  alone.'*  ha.  xliv.  24.  Thus  far  is  consistent : 
The  Lordj  in  the  third  person,  is  the  antecedent,  and  the  verb 
agrees  with  the  relative  in  the  third  person :  "  I  am  the  Lord^ 
which  Lord,  or  he  that  maJceth  all  things."  If /were  made  th© 
antecedent,  the  relative  and  verb  should  agree  with  it  in  the 
first  person  :  as,  "/am  the  hord,  that  make  all  things,  that  stretch 
forth  the  heavens  alone."  But  should  it  follow  :  "  That  spread-  , 
eth  abroad  the  earth  by  myself;"  there  would  aris^  a  confusion 
of  persons,  and  a  manifest  solecism. 

RULE  VIIl. 

Every  adjective,  and  every  adjective  pronoun,  belongs  to 
a  substantive,  expressed  or  understood  :  as,  **  He  is  a  good^ 
as  well  as  a  zoise  man  ^"  "  Few  are  happy  ;"  that  is,  '' per- 
fons :"  **  This  is  a  pleasaiat  walk ;"  that  is,  "  This  walk  is,"  &€. 

Adjective  pronouns  must  agree,  in  number,  with  their 
substantives  :  as,  "  This  book,  these  books  ;  that  sort,  those 
sorts  ;  another  road,  other  roads." 

I.    ADJECTIVE    PRONOUNS. 

A  few  instances  of  the  breach  of  this  rule  are  here  exhibited. 
'*I  have  not  travelled  this  twenty  years  ;"  "  ^^€5e  twenty."  **I 
am  not  recommending  these  kind  of  sufferings;"  "tfei5  kind." 
''Those  set  of  books  was  a  valuable  present;"  ^'that  set." 
^  1  The  word  means  in  the  singular  number,  and  the  phrases, 
"  J5v  this  mcans^^^  "  By  that  means,^^  are  used  by  our  best  and  most 
correct  writers;  namely,  Bacon,  Tillotson,  Atterbury,  Addison, 


I   Rule  viii.]  SYNTAX.  J 09 

Steele,  Pope,  &c.  "^Tlioy  are,  indeed,  in  so  general  and  approved 
use,  that  it  would  appear  awkward,  if  net  affected,  to  apply  the 
old  singular  form,  and  say,  "By  tliis  viean  ;  by  that  mean;  it 
was  by  a  mean;^''  although  it  is  more  agreeable  to  the  general 
analogy  of  the  language.  "The  word  merrns  (says  Priestley) 
belongs  to  the  class  of  words,  which  do  not  change  their  termina- 
tion on  account  of  number;  for  it  is  used  alike  in  both  numbers." 

The  word  amends  is  used  in  this  manner,  in  tlie  following  sen- 
tences: "  Though  he  did  not  succeed,  he  gained  the  approbaiioa 
of  his  country  ;  and  with  this  amends  he  was  content."  "Peace 
of  mind  is  an  honourable  amends  for  the  sacrifices  of  interest." 
"  In  return,  he  received  the  thanks  of  his  employers,  and  thepra- 
sent  of  a  large  estate :  thjise  were  ample  amends  for  all  his  la 
bours."  "  VVe  have  described  the  rewards  of  vice:  the  good 
man's  amends  are  of  a  different  nature." 

It  can  scarcely  be  doubted,  that  this  word  amends  (like  the 
word  means)  had  formerly  its  correspondent  form  in  the  singular 
number,  as  it  is  derived  from  the  French  amende,  though  now  it 
is  exclusively  established  in  the  plural  form.  If,  therefore,  it  bo 
alleged,  that  mean  should  be  applied  in  the  singular,  because  it 
is  derived  from  the  French  moyen,  the  same  kijid  of  argument 
may  be  advanced  in  favour  of  the  singular  amende;  and  the  gene- 
ral analogy  of  the  lauijuage  may  also  be  pleaded  in  support  of  it. 

Campbell,  in  his  "Philosophy  of  Khetoric,"  has  the  following 

*  "  Ry  this  means,  he  had  the;>i  the  more  at  vantage,  being  tired  and  liarassed 
v/itli  a  long  niarcli."  Bacon: 

**  By  this  means  one  great  restraint  from  doing  evil,  would  be  taken  away,"-  • 
"  And  thts  is  an  admirable  means  to  improve  men  in  virtue."-^i?y  that  means 
they  iiave  rendered  their  duty  nirj-e  difficult."  Tilloisnn. 

*'  it  renders  us  careless  of  approving  ourselves  to  God,  and  by  that  means  se- 
curing the  continuance  of  his  goodness." — "^  A  good  character, when  established, 
should  not  be  rested  in  as  an  end,  but  employed  as  a  means  of  doing  still  furthei 
good."  Atterbuyy 

'''-By  this  m£ans  they  are  happy  in  each  other." — "He  by  that  i>*-^.\,iS  pre 
serves  his  superiority."  Addison 

**  V'our  vanity  by  this  means  will  waiU  its  food."  Steele 

"  By  this  means  alone,  their  greatest  obstacles  will  vanish."  Pope 

**  Which  custom  has  proved  the  most  effectual  means  to  ruin  the  nobles." 

Dean  Sunft 

"  There  is  no  means  of  escaping  the  persecution." -**  Faith  is  not  only  u 

means  of  obeying,  but  a  principal  acl  of  obedience."  Dr.  Ycimg. 

**  He  looked  on  money  as  a  necessary  means  of  maintaining  and  increasing 
power."  Lord  Lyttleton's  Henry  IL 

"  John  was  too  much  intimidated  not  to  embrace  every  means  afforded  for  hi? 
safety."  Goldsmith. 

*•  Lest  this  means  sliould  fail." — "By  means  of  ship-money,  the  late  king,"  (fcc. 
••■ '*  The  only  means  of  securirfg  a  durable  iieace."  Hume. 

"  By  this  m£a7is  there  was  nothing  left  to  the  parliament  of  Ireland,"  &c.    . 

Blackstone, 

"  By  this  means  so  many  slaves  escaped  out  of  tlie  hands  of  their  masters." 

Dr.  Robertson. 

"  By  this  meatis  they  bear  witness  to  each  other."  Bvrke. 

♦*  By  this  jnenns  the  wrath  of  man  was  made  to  turn  as^dinst  itself."   Dr.  Blair, 

*  Amagazii.e,  which  has,  by  this  rnm/w,  coulained,  &c."— "  Birds,  in  general, 
procure  tiieir  food  by  7nean$  of  their  beak.''  Dr.  Paiey, 

K 


no  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR.  LRule  vin 

remark  on  the  subject  before  us  :  "  No  persons  of  taste  will,  1 
presume,  venture  so  far  to  violate  the  present  usage,  and  conse- 
quently to  shock  the  ears  of  the  generality  of  readers,  as  to  say, 
*  By  this  mean,  by  that  mean.''  " 

Lowth  and  Johnson  seem  to  be  against  the  use  o^  means  in  the 
singular  number.  They  do  not,  however,  speak  decisively  on 
the  point;  but  rather  dubiously,  and  as  if  they  knevr  that  they 
were  questioning  eminent  authorities,  as  vrell  as  general  prac- 
tice. That  they  vrere  not  decidedly  against  the  application  of 
this  word  to  the  singular  number,  appears  from  their  own  lan- 
guage :  "  Whole  sentences,  whether  simple  or  compound,  may 
become  members  of  other  sentences  by  means  of  some  additional 
connexion,'''' — Dr.  Lowth^s  Introduction  to  English  Grammar. 

"  There  is  no  other  method  of  teaching  that  of  which  any  on« 
is  ignorant,  but  by  means  of  something  already  known," — Dr. 
Johnson.     Idler. 

It  is  remarkable  that  our  present  version  of  the  Scriptures 
makes  no  use,  as  far  as  the  compiler  can  discover,  of  the  word 
mean  ;  though  there  are  several  instances  to  be  found  in  it  of  the 
use  of  meanSi  in  the  sense  and  connexion  contended  for.  "  By 
this  means  thou  shalt  have  no  portion  on  this  side  the  river.'* 
Ezra  iv.  16.  "  That  by  means  ofdeatK,'^  &c.  Heb.  ix.  15.  It  will 
scarcely  be  pretended,  that  the  translators  of  the  sacred  volumes 
did  not  accurately  understand  the  English  language  ;  or  that 
they  would  have  admitted  one  form  of  this  word,  and  rejected 
the  other,  had  not  their  determination  been  conformable  to  the 
best  usage.  An  attempt  therefore  to  recover  an  old  word,  so 
long  since  disused  by  the  most  correct  writers,  seems  not  likely 
to  be  successful ;  especially  as  the  rejection  of  it  is  not  attended 
with  any  inconvenience. 

The  practice  of  the  best  and  most  correct  writers,  or  a  great 
majority  of  them,  corroborated  by  general  usage,  forms,  during 
its  continuance,  the  standard  of  language  ;  especially,  if,  in  par- 
ticular instances,  this  practice  continue,  after  objection  and  due 
consideration.  Every  connexion  and  application  of  words  and 
phrases,  thus  supported,  must  therefore  be  proper,  and  entitled 
to  respect,  if  not  exceptionable  in  a  moral  point  of  view. 

"  Si  volet  usus 

"  Quern  penes  arbitrium  est,  et  jus,  et  norma  loquendi."  HOR- 

On  this  principle,  many  forms  of  expression,  not  less  deviating 
from  the  general  analogy  of  the  language,  than  those  before  men- 
tioned, are  to  he  considered  as  strictly  proper  and  justifiable. 
Of  this  kind  are  the  following.  ^' JVone  of  them  are  varied  to 
express  the  gender  ;"  and  yet  none  originally  signified  no  one» 

*  He  himself  shaU  do  the  work  :"  here,  what  was  at  first  appro- 
.^riated  to  the  objective,  is  now  properly  used  as  the  nominative 

5ase.  *'  Yon  have  behaved  yourselves  well :"  in  this  example, 
xhe  word  you  is  put  in  the  nominative  case  plural,  with  strict 
J^opriety  ;  though  formerly  it  was  confined  to  ttie  objective  ca&e, 
fmd  ye  exclusively  used  for  the  nominative. 


RuLEviH,]  SYNTAX.  in 

With  respect  to  anomalies  and  variations  of  language,  thus 
established,  it  is  the  grammarian's  business  to  submit,  not  to  re- 
monstrate. In  pertinaciously  opposing  the  decision  of  proper 
authority,  and  contending  for  obsolete  modes  of  expression,  he 
may,  indeed,  display  learning  and  critical  sagacity  ;  and,  in  some 
degree,  obscure  points  that  are  sufficiently  clear  and  decided ; 
but  he  caKuot  reasonably  hope  either  to  succeed  in  his  aims,  or 
to  assist  the  learner,  in  discovering  and  respecting  the  true  stand- 
ard and  principles  of  language. 

Cases  which  custom  has  left  dubious,  are  certainly  within  the 
grammarian's  province.  Here,  he  may  reason  and  remonstrate 
on  the  ground  of  derivation,  analogy,  and  propriety  ;  and  hia 
reasonings  may  refine  arfd  improve  the  language  :  but  when 
authority  speaks  out  and  decides  the  point,  it  were  perpetually 
to  unsettle  the  language,  to  admit  of  cavil  and  debate.  Anoma- 
lies the«,  under  the  limitation  mentionexl,  become  the  law,  as 
clearly  as  the  plainest  analogies. 

The  reader  will  perceive  that,  in  the  following  sentences,  the 
use  of  the  word  mean  in  the  old  form  has  a  very  uncouth  appear- 
ance :  "By  the  wean  of  adversity  we  are  often  instructed.'* 
"  He  preserved  his  health  by  mean  of  exercise."  "Frugahty  is 
one  mean  of  acquiring  a  competency."  They  should  be,  "By 
means  of  adversity,"  &c.  "By  means  of  exercise,"  &c.  "Fru- 
gality is  one  means j^^  &c. 

Good  writers  do  indeed  make  use  of  the  substantive  mean  in 
the  singular  number,  and  in  that  number  only,  to  signify  medi- 
ocrity, middle  rate,  &c.  as,  "  This  is  a  mean  between  the  two 
extremes."  But  in  the  sense  of  instrumentality,  it  has  been 
long  disused  by  the  best  authors,  and  by  almost  every  writer. 

This  m^ans  and  that  means  should  be  used  only  when  they 
refer  to  what  is  singular  ;  these  means  and  those  means,  when 
they  respect  plurals :  as,  "  He  lived  temperately,  and  by  this 
means  preserved  his  health ;"  "  The  scholars  were  attentive, 
industrious,  and  obedient  to  their  tutors ;  and  by  these  means 
acquired  knowledge." 

We  have  enlarged  on'this  article,  that  the  young  student  may 
be  led  to  reflect  on  a  point  so  important,  as  that  of  ascertaining 
the  standard  of  propriety  in  the  use  of  language. 

2  When  two  persons  or  things  are  spoken  of  in  a  sentence, 
and  there  is  occasion  to  mention  them  again  for  the  sake  of 
distinction,  that  is  used  in  i*eference  to  the  former,  and  this^  in 
reference  to  the  latter :  as,  "  Self-lave,  which  is  the  spring  of 
action  in  the  soul,  is  ruled  by  reason :  but  for  that,  man  would 
be  inactive  ;  and  but  for  this,  he  would  be  active  to  no  end.'' 

3  The  distributive  adjective  pronouns,  each,  even/,  either,  agree 
with  the  nouns,  pronouns,  and  verbs,  of  the  singular  number 
only:  as,  **The  king  of  Israel,  and  Jehoshaphat,  the  king  of 
Judali,  sat  each  on  his  throne;"  ^^  Every  tree  is  known  by  its 
fruit :"  unless  the  plural  noun  convey  a  collective  idea :  as, 
**  Every  six  months  ;"  "  -Gvery  hundred  years." The  following 


112  ENGLISH  GRAMaiAR. 


[RUI-E  VI^ 


phrases  are  exceptionable.  '^  Let  each  esteem  others  better  than 
themselves:*'  It  ought  t(i  be  '•^  Idmself.''*  •' The  language  should 
be  both  perspicuous  and  correct :  in  proportion  as  ci7Aer  of  these 
two  qualities  are  waitting,  the  language  is  imperfect:"  it  should 
be,  ^'  is  wanting.'*  '*  Kvcry  one  of  the  letters  bear  regular  dates, 
and  contain  proofs  of  attachment:"  '■'hnars  a  regular  dale.,  and 
contains^  *'  livery  town  and  village  were  burned  ;  every  grove 
and  every  tree  were  cut  down:"  '"•was  burned,  and  was  cut 
down."  See  the  Key,  p.  16;  and  the  Octavo  Grammar,  SECo^'D 
edition,  volume  2,  page  322. 

Either  is  often  used  improperly,  instead  of  each :  as,  "The 
king  ofl  srael,  and  Jehoshaphat,  the  king  of  Judah,  sat  either  ol 
them  on  his  throne;"  "  Nadab  and  Abihu,  the  sons  of  Aaron, 
took  either  of  them  his  censer."  Each  signifies  both  of  them 
taken  distinctly  or  separately  ;  cither  properly  signifies  only  the 
one  or  the  other  of  them  taken  disjunctively. 

In  the  course  of  this  work,  some  examples  will  appear  of  erro- 
neous translations  from  the  Holy  Scriptures,  with  respect  to 
grammatical  construction  :  but  it  may  be  proper  to  remark,  that 
notwithstanding  these  verbal  mistakes,  the  Bible,  for  the  size  of 
it,  is  the  most  accurate  grammatical  composition  that  we  have 
in  the  English  language.  The  authority  of  several  eminent 
grammarians  might  be  adduced  in  support  of  this  assertion  :  but 
it  may  be  suflicient  to  mention  only  that  of  Dr.  Lowth,  who  says, 
*'The  present  translation  of  the  Bible,  is  the  best  standard  of  the 
English- language." 

'..'j  II.     ADJECTIVES. 

4  Adjectives  are  sometimes  improperly  applied  as  adverbs : 
as,  "  Indifferent  honest ;  excellent  well ;  miserable  poor ;"  instead 
of  '*  Indifferently  honest ;  excellently  well ;  miserably  poor." 
"  He  behaved  himself  conformable  to  that  great  example  ;" 
^''conformably.''''  "Eiijdeavour  to  live  hereafter  suitable  to  a 
l^erson  in  thy  station  ;"  **  suitably,''^  "  I  can  never  think  so  very 
mean  of  him  ;"  "  meanly,''''  *'  He  describes  this  river  agreeable 
to  the  common  reading;"  *^  agreeably. ^^  "Agreeable  to  my 
promise,  I  now  write  ;"  '*  agreeably.'^  '*  Thy  exceeding  great 
reward:"  When  united  to  an  adjective,  or  adverb  not  ending  in 
ly,the  word  exceeding  has  ly  added  to  it:  as,  "exceedirigly  dread- 
ful, exceedingly  great;"  "exceedingly  well,  exceedingly  more 
active  :"  but  when  it  is  joined  to  an  adverb  or  adjective,  having 
that  termination,  the  ly  is  omitted :  as,  "  Some  men  think  ex- 
ceeding clearly,  and  reason  exceeding  forcibly  :"  "  She  appeared, 
on  this  occasion,  exceeding  lovely."  "  He  acted  in  this  business 
bolder  than  was  expected  :"  "  They  behaved  the  noblest,  because 
they  were  disinterested."  They  should  have  been,  "  more  boldly; 
most  nobly.^^ — The  adjective  pronoun  such  Is  often  misapphed: 
as,  "  He  was  such  an  extravagant  young  man,  that  he  spent  his 
whole  patrimony  in  a  few  years  :"  it  sliould  be,  "50  extravagant 
a  young  man,^"*  '*  I  never  before  saw  such  large  trees:"  ^^  saw 
trees  so  large.''''    When  we  refer  to  the  species  or  nature  of  n 


Rule  VIII.]  SYNTAX.  1J8 

Uiing,  the  word  such  is  properly  applied  :  as,  **  Such  a  temper  is 
seldom  found:"  but  when  degree  is  signified,  we  use  the  word 
80  :  as,  "  So  Iiad  a  temper  is  seldom  found." 

Adverbs  are  Hkewise  iinpropeiiy  used  as  adjectives  :  as,  "The 
tutor  addressed  him  in  terms  rather  warm,  but  suitably  to  his 
offence^"  '^suUalle.''  "They  were  seen  wandering  about  soH- 
t^irily  and  distressed;"  '' solitary. ^^  "He  hved  in  a  manner 
agreeably  to  the  dictates  of  reason  and  rehgion  ;''  **  agreealle.^* 
**The  si\<dy  of  syntax  should  be  previously  to  that  of  punctua- 
tion;" ^' previoiLsJ'^* 

5  Double  comparatives  and  superlatives  should  be  avoided  : 
such  as,  "A  worser  conduct;"  "On  lesser  ho[)es;"  "A  more 
serener  temper;"  "  The  most  straitest  sect ;"  "  A  more  superior 
work."  They  should  be,  "worse  conduct;"  "less  hopes;"  "a 
more  serene  temjKir  :"  "  the  straitest  sect ;"  "a  superior  work." 

G  Adjectives  that  have  in  themselves  a  superlative  significa- 
tion, do  not  properly  admit  of  the  superlative  or  comparative 
form  superaddcu  :  S4ich  as,  "  Chief,  extreme,  perfect,  right,  uni- 
versal, supreme,"  &c. ;  which  are  sometimes  improperly  written, 
**  Chiefest,  extiomesi,  perfectest,  rightest,  most  universal,  most 
supreme,"  ^c.  The  following  expressions  are  therefore  im- 
proper. "  He  sometimes  claims  admission  to  the  chiefest  offices." 
"The  quarrel  oecame  so  universal  and  national  ;"  "A  method 
of  attaining  the  rightist  and  greatest  happiness  "  The  phrases, 
so  perfect,  so  right,  so  extreme,  so  universal,  &c.  are  incorrect; 
because  they  imply  that  one  thing  is  less  perfect,  less  extreme, 
&c.  than  another,  which  is  not  povssible. 

7  Inaccuracies  are  often  found  in  the  way  in  which  the  de- 
grees of  comparison  are  applied  and  construed.  The  following 
are  examples  of  wrong  construction  in  this  respect:  "This  no^ 
ble  nation  hath,  of  all  others,  admitted  fewer  corruptions." 
The  woyA  fewer  is  here  construed  precisely  as  if  it  were  the 
superlative.  It  should  be,  "This  noble  nation' hath  admitted 
fewer  corruptions  than  any  other."  We  commonly  say,  "  This 
is  the  weaker  of  the  two  ;"  or,  "  The  weakest  of  the  two  :"  but 
the  former  is  the  regular  mode  of  expression,  because  there  are 
only  two  things  compared.  "  The  vice  of  covetousness  is  what 
enters  deepest  into  the  soul  of  any  other."  "  He  celebrates  the 
church  of  England  as  the  most  perfect  of  all  others."  Both 
these  modes  of  expression  are  faulty  :  we  should  not  say,  "  The 
best  of  any  man,"  or,  "  The  best  of  any  other  man,"  for  "  the 
beft  of  men."  The  sentences  may  be  corrected  by  substituting 
the  comparative  in  the  room  of  the  superlative.  "  The  vice,  &c. 
is  what  enters  deeper  into  the  soul  than  any  other."  "He  cele- 
brates, &c.  as  more  perfect  than  any  other."  It  is  also  possible 
to  retain  the  superlative,  and  render  the  expression  grammatical. 
"  Covetousness,  of  all  vices,  enters  the  deepest  into  the  soul." 
"  He  celebrates,  &c.  as  the  most  perfect  of  all  churches."  These 

*  For  the  rule  to  determine  whether  an  adjective  or  an  adverb  is  to  ti  ised 
•ec  English  exercises,  Sixteenth,  or  any  siibseque  r  edition,  page  140. 

K2 


fl 


114  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR.  [Rule  vii 

sentences  contain  ctlier  errors,  against  whic)!  it  is  proper  to 
caution  the  learner.  The  words  deeper  and  deepest^  being  in- 
tended for  adverbs,  should  luive  been  more  dceplij,  most  detpbj. 
The  phrases  more  perfect^  and  most  perfect,  are  improper  ;  because 
perfection  admits  of  no  degrees  of  comparison.  We  may  say 
nearer  or  nearest  to  perfection,  or  more  or  less  imperfect. 

8  In  some  cases,  adjectives  should  not  be  separated  from  their 
substantives,  even  by  words  which  modify  their  meaning,  and 
make  but  one  sense  with  them  :  as,  "  A  large  enough  number 
surely."  It  should  be,  "  A  number  large  enough."  "  Tlie  lower 
sort  of  people  are  good  enough  judges  of  one  not  very  distant 
from  them." 

The  adjective  is  usually  placed  before  its  substantive :  as,  "  A 
p^enerous  man;"  "How  amiable  a  woman!"  The  instances  in 
which  it  comes  after  the  substantive,  are  the  following. 

1st,  When  something  depends  upon  the  adjective  ;  and  when 
it  gives  a  better  sound,  especially  in  poetry  :  as,  "  A  man  gene- 
rous to  his  enemies;"  "Feed  me  with  food  convenient  for  me;" 
"A  tree  three  feet  thicks  "A  body  of  troops  fifty  thousand 
strong  ;"    "  The  torrent  tumbling  through  rocks  abrupt,''' 

2d,  When  the  adjective  is  enjphatical:  as,  "  Alexander  the 
Great  f  "Lewis  the  Bold;''  "Goodness  infinite;'"  "Wisdom 
unsearcliahl'ey 

3d,  When  several  adjectives  belong  to  one  substantive  :  as, 
*'  A  man  just,  wise,  and  charitable  ;"  "  A  woman  modest,  sensi- 
ble, and  virtuous." 

4th,  When  the  adjective  is  preceded  by  an  adverb :  as,  "  A 
boy  regularly  studious  ;"   "A  girl  unaffectedly  modest." 

5th,  When  the  verb  to  be,  in  any  of  its  variations,  comes  be- 
tween a  substantive  and  an  adjective,  the  adjective  may  fre- 
quently either  precede  or  follow  it:  as,  "  The  man  is  happy;  or, 
happy  is  the  man,  who  makes  virtue  his  choice  :"  "  The  interview 
was  delightful ;"  or,  "  delightful  was  the  interview." 

Cth,  When  the  adjective  expresses  some  cii'cumstance  of  a 
substantive  placed  after  an  active  verb  :  as,  "  Vanity  often  ren- 
ders its  possessor  despicable,"  In  an  exclamatory  sentence,  the 
adjective  generally  precedes  the  substantive  :  as,  "How  dtspica- 
hie  does  vanity  often  render  its  possessor !" 

There  is,  sometimes  great  beauty,  as  well  as  force,  in  placing 
the  adjective  before  the  verb,  and  the  substantive  immediately 
after  it :  as.  "  Great  is  the  Lord !  just  and  true  are  thy  ivays, 
thou  King- of  saints!" 

Sometimes  the  word  all  is  emphatically  put  after  a  number  of 
particulars  comprehended  under  it.  "Ambition,  interest,  ho- 
nour, all  concurred."  Sometimes  a  substantive,  which  likewise 
comprehends  the  preceding  particulars,  is  used  in  conjunction 
with  this  adjective:  as,  "Royalists,  republicans,  churchmen, 
eectaries,  courtiers,  patriots,  all  parties^  concurred  in  the  illusion." 

An  adjective  pronoun,  in  the  jdural  number,  will  sometime'* 


Rule  IX.]  SYNTAX.  115 

properly  associate  Avith  a  singular  noun  :  as,  "  Our  desire,  your 
intention,  their  resignation."  This  association  applies  rather  tc 
things  of  an  intellectual  nature,  than  to  those  which  are  corpo 
real.     It  forms  an  exception  to  the  general  rule. 

A  suhstantive  with  its  adjective  is  reckoned  as  one  compound- 
ed word,  whence  they  often  take  another  adjective,  and  some- 
times a  third,  and  so  on  :  as,  ''  An  old  man  ;  a  good  old  man  ;  a 
very  learned,  judicious,  good  old  man." 

Though  the  adjective  always  relates  to  a  substantive,  it  is,  in 
many  instances,  put  as  if  it  were  absolute  ;  especially  where  the 
noun  has  been  mentioned  before,  or  is  easily  understood,  though 
hot  expressed  :  as,  "  I  often  survey  the  green  fields,  as  I  am  very 
fond  of  green  ;"  "Tiic  wise,  the  virtuous,  the  honoured,  famed, 
and  great,"  that  is,  "persons;"  '^The  twelve,"  that  is,  *' aj)os- 
tles  ;"  *' Have  compassion  on  the  poor;  be  feet  to  the  lame,  and 
eyes  to  the  blind. ^^ 

Substantives  are  often  used  as  adjectives.  In  this  case,  the 
word  so  used  is  sometimes  unconnected  with  the  substantive  to 
which  it  relates  ;  sometinjes  connected  with  it  by  a  hyphen  ;  and 
sometimes  joined  to  it,  so  as  to  make  the  two  words  coalesce. 
The  total  separation  is  proper,  when  either  of  the  two  words  is 
long,  or  when  they  cannot  be  fluently  pronounced  as  one  word  : 
aR,  an  adjective  pronoun,  a  silver  watch,  a  stone  cistern:  the  hy- 
phen is  used,  when  both  the  words  are  short,  and  are  readily 
pronounced  as  a  single  word  :  as,  coal-mine,  corn-mill,  fruit-tree : 
the  words  coalesce,  when  they  are  readily  pronounced  together, 
have  a  long  established  association  ;  and  are  in  frequent  use  : 
a.'i'.  honeycomb,  gingerbread,  inkhorn,  Yorksliire. 

Sometimes  the  adjective  becomes  a  substantive,  and  has  ano 
ther  adjective  joined  to  It:  as,  "The  chief  good;"  "The  vasi 
immense  of  space." 

When  an  adjective  has  a  preposition  before  it,  the  substan- 
tive being  understood,  it  takes  the  nature  of  an  adverb,  and  is 
considered  as  an  adverb:  as,  "In  general,  in  particular,  in 
haste,"  &c. ;  that  is,  "  Generally,  particularly,  hastily." 

Enow  was  formerly  used  as  the  plural  of  enough  :  but  it  is  now 
obsolete 

RULE  IX. 

The  article  a  or  an  agrees  with  nouns  in  the  singular 
number  only,  individually  or  collectively :  as,  "  A  christian, 
an  infidel,  a  score,  a  thousand."  The  definite  article  the 
may  agree  with  nouns  in  the  singular  and  plural  number : 
as,  "  The  garden,  the  houses,  the  stars." 

The  articles  are  often  properly  omitted :  when  used,  they 
should  be  justly  applied,  according  to  their  distinct  nature : 
as,  "  Gold  is  corrupting ;  the  sea  is  green  ;  a  lion  is  bold." 

It  is  of  the  nature  of  both  the  articles  to  determine  or  liniit 
tl»e  thing  spoken  of.    Jl  determines  it  to  be  one  single  thing  of 


116  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR.  [Rule  ix 

the  kind,  leaving  it  still  uncertain  which:  Oie  determines  which 
it  is  ;  or  of  many,  which  they  are. 

The  following  passage  will  serve  as  an  example  of  the  differ- 
ent uses  of  a  and  /A-e,  and  of  the  force  of  the  substantive  without 
any  article.  "  Man  was  made  for  society,  and  ought  to  extend 
his  good  will  to  all  men  :  but  a  man  will  naturally  entertain  a 
more  particular  kmdness  for  the  men,  with  whom  he  has  the 
most  frequent  intercourse ;  and  enter  into  a  still  closer  union  with 
the  man  whose  temper  and  disposition  suit  best  with  his  own." 

As  the  articles  are  sometimes  misapplied,  it  may  be  of  som* 
use  to  exhibit  a  few  instances:  "  And  J  persecuted  this  way  unto 
the  death.'*  The  apostle  does  not  mean  any  particular  sort  of 
death,  but  death  in  general :  the  definite  article  therefore  is  im- 
properly used  :  it  ought  to  be  "unto  death,"  without  any  article. 

"  When  he,  the  Spirit  of  Truth,  is  come,  he  will  guide  you  into 
all  truth  ;"  that  is,  according  to  this  translation,  "into  all  truth 
whatsoever,  into  truth  of  all  kinds ;"  very  different  from  the 
meaning  of  the  evangelist,  and  from  the  original,  ''into  all  the 
truth ;"  that  is,  "  into  all  evangelical  truth,  ail  truth  necessary 
for  you  to  know." 

"  Who  breaks  a  butterfly  upon  a  wheel  ?"  it  ought  to  be  "  the 
wheel,"  used  as  an  instrument  for  the  particular  purpose  of  tor- 
turing criminals.  '*  The  Almighty  hath  given  reason  to  a  man 
to  be  a  light  unto  him :"  it  should  rather  be,  "  to  man,^^  in  gene- 
ral. "This  day  is  salvation  come  to  this  house, forasmuch  as  he 
also  is  the  son  of  Abraham  :"  it  ought  to  be,  "a  son  of  Abraham." 

These  remarks  may  serve  to  show  the  great  importance  of  the 
proper  use  of  the  article,  and  the  excellence  of  the  English  lan- 
guage in  this  respect ;  which,  by  means  of  its  two  articles,  does 
most  precisely  determine  the  extent  of  signification  of  common 
names. 

1  A  nice  distinction  of  the  sense  is  sometimes  made  by  the 
use  or  omission  of  the  article  a.  If  1  say,  **  He  behaved  with  a 
little  reverence  ;"  my  meaning  is  positive.  If  I  say,  "  He  behaved 
with  little  reverence  ;"  my  meaning  is  negative.  And  these  two 
are  by  no  means  the  same,  or  to  be  used  in  the  same  cases.  By  the 
former,  I  rather  praise  a  person  ;  by  the  latter,  I  dispraise  him. 
For  the  sake  of  this  distinction,  which  is  a  very  useful* one,  we 
may  better  bear  the  seeming  impropriety  of  the  article  a  before 
nouns  of  number.  When  I  say,  "There  were  few  men  with 
him;"  I  speak  diminutively,  and  mean  to  represent  them  as  in 
considerable :  whereas,  when  I  say  ;  ^*  There  were  a  few  men 
with  him  ;"  I  evidently  intend  to  make  the  most  of  them. 

2  In  general,  it  may  be  suflicient  to  prefix  the  article  to  the 
former  of  two  words  in  the  same  construction ;  though  the 
French  never  fail  to  repeat  it  in  this  case. 

"  There  were  many  hours,  both  of  the  night  and  day,  which 
he  could  spend,  without  suspicion,  in  solitary  thought."  It 
might  have  been  **  of  the  night  and  of  the  day."  And,  for  the 
fiake  of  emphasis,  we  often  repeat  the  article  in  a  series  of  epi 


Rule  xJ  SYNTAX.  J 17 

thets.     "He  hoped  that  this  title  wouIJ  secure  hjjii  an  am])le  and 
an  independent  authority." 

3  In  common  conversation,  and  in  familiar  style,  we  frequent- 
ly omit  the  articles,  which  might  he  inserted  with  propriety  in 
writing,  especially  in  a  grave  style.  "At  worst,  time  miglit  he 
gained  hy  tliis  expedient."  "At  i/je  worst,"  would  Iiave  heeri 
lietter  in  this  place.  "  Give  me  here  John  Baptist's  head." 
There  would  have  heen  more  dignity  in  saying,  "John  tht  Bap- 
list's  head  :"  or,  "  The  lieud  of  John  the  Baptist." 


The  article  the  has  sometimes  a  good  effect  in  distinguishing  a 
person  hy  an  epithet.  "  In  the  history  of  Henry  the  fourth,  hy 
Father  Daniel,  we  are  surprised  at  not  finding  him  the  great 
man."  "I  own  I  am  often  surprised  that  he  should  have  treat- 
ed so  coldly,  a  man  so  much  the  gentleman." 

This  article  is  often  elegantly  pur,  after  the  manner  of  the 
French,  for  the  pronoun  possessive:  as,  "He  looks  him  full  in 
ike  face ;"  that  is,  "  in  his  face."  "  In  his  presence  they  were 
10  strike  the  forehead  on  the  ground  ;"  that  is,  "  their  foreheads  ^ 

We  sometimes,  according  to  the  French  manner,  repeat  the 
same  article,  when  the  adjective,  on  account  of  any  clause  de- 
pending upon  it,  is  put  after  the  suhstantive.  "  Of  all  the  consi- 
derahle  governments  among  the  Alps,  a  commonwealth  is  a  con- 
Btitution  the  most  adapted  of  any  to  the  poverty  of  those  coun- 
tries." **  With  such  a  specious  title  as  that  of  blood,  which  with 
the  multitude  is  always  a  claim,  the  strongest,  and  the  most  easily 
comprehended."  "  They  are  not  the  men  in  the  nation  the  most 
difficult  to  be  replace^." 

RULE  X. 
One  substantive  governs  another,  signifying  a  diiferent 
thing,  in  the  possessive  or  genitive  case  :   as,  "  My  father  s 
house;"  "  Man's  happiness  ;"  "  Virtue's  reward.'* 

When  the  annexed  substantive  signifies  the  same  thing  as  the 
first,  there  is  no  variation  of  case :  as,  "  George,  king  of  Great 
Britain,  elector  of  Hanover,"  itc. ;  "  Pompey  contended  with 
Caesar,  the  greatest  general  of  his  time  ;"  "Religion,  the  support 
of  adversity,  adorns  prosperity."  Nouns  thus  circumstanced 
are  said  to  be  in  apposition  to  each  other.  The  interposition  of 
n  relative  and  verb  will  sometimes  break  the  construction  :  as, 
"  Pompey  contended  with  Caesar,  who  was  the  greatest  general 
of  his  time."  Here  the  word  general  is  in  the  nominative  case, 
governed  by  note  4,  under  Rule  xi. 

The  preposition  q/*  joined  to  a  substantive,  is  not  always  equi- 
valent to  the  possessive  case.  It  is  only  so,  when  the  expression 
can  be  converted  into  the  regukir  forni  of  the  possessive  case. 
We  can  say,  "The  reward  cf  virtue,"  and  "Virtue's  reward:" 
but  though  it  is  proper  to  say,  "A  crown  of  gold,"  we  cannot 
convert  the  expression  into  the  possessive  case,  and  say,  "  Gold's 
crown." 


Substantives  govern  pronouns  as  well  as  nouns,  in  tlie  posses- 
sive case :  as,  "  Every  tree  is  known  by  its  fruit ;"  "  Goodnesb 
brings  its  reward  ;"    "  That  desk  is  mine,^^ 

The  genitive  its  is  often  improperly  used  for  'tis  or  ii  is ;  as, 
"  Its  my  book-:"  instead  of  '*  It  is  my  book." 

The  pronoun  to,  when  detached  from  the  noun  to  which  it 
relates,  is  to  be  considered,  not  as  a  possessive  pronoun,  but  as 
the  genitive  case  of  the  personal  pronoun  :  as,  *'  This  composition 
i3  to."  *' Whose  book  is  that?"  '^  iifi5."  If  we  used  the  noun 
itself,  we  should  say,  '*  This  composition  is  John's."  "  Whose  book 
is  that  ?"  "  Eliza's."  The  position  will  be  still  more  evident, 
when  we  consider  that  both  the  pronouns  in  the  following  sen 
tences  must  have  a  similar  construction  :  *'  Is  it  her  or  his  honour 
that  is  tarnished  .'"  "  It  is  not  hers,  but  to." 

Sometimes  a  substantive  in  the  genitive  or  possessive  case 
stands  alone,  the  latter  one  by  which  it  is  governed  being  un- 
derstood :  as,  *'  I  called  at  the  bookseller's,"  that  is,  **  at  the 
bookseller's  shcp^ 

1  If  several  nouns  come  together  in  the  genitive  case,  the 
apostrophe  with  s  is  annexed  to  the  last,  and  understood  to  the^ 
rest :  as,    *'  John  and  Eliza's  books :"    "  This  was  my   father,  ^, 
mother,  and  uncle's  advice."     But  when  any  words  interi^ene, 
perhaps  on   account  of  the  increased   pause,  the  sign  of  the . 
possessive  should  be  annexed  to  each  :  as,  "  They  are  John's  as 
well  as  EHza's  books;"  "I  had  the  physician's,  the  surgeon's, 
and  the  apothecary's  assistance." 

2  In  poetry,  the  additional  5  is  frequently  omitted,  but  the 
apostrophe  retained,  in  the  same  manner  as  in  substantives  of 
the  plural  nu/nber  ending  in  s:  as,  "The  wrath  of  Peleus'  son." 
This  seems  not  so  allowable  in  prose;  which  the  following  erro- 
neous examples  will  demonstrate:  "Moses'  minister;"  "Phine- 
has'  wife  ;"  "Festus  came  into  Felix'  room."  "  These  answers 
were  made  to  the  witness'  questions."  But  in  cases  which  would 
give  too  much  of  the  hissing  sound,  or  increase  the  difficulty  of 
pronunciation,  the  omission  takes  place  even  in  prose  :  as,  **  For 
righteousness'  sake;"  "For  conscience'  sake." 

3  Little  explanatory  circumstances  are  particularly  awkward 
between  a  genitive  case,  and  the  word  which  usually  follows  it : 
as,  "  She  began  to  extol  the  farmer's,  as  she  called  him,  excellent 
understanding."  It  ought  to  be,  "  the  excellent  understanding 
of  the  farmer,  as  she  called  him." 

4  When  a  sentence  consists  of  terms  signifying  a  name  and 
an  office,  or  of  any  expressions  by  which  one  part  is  descriptive 
or  explanatory  of  the  other,  it  may  occasion  some  doubt  to  which 
of  them  the  sign  of  the  genitive  case  should  be  annexed ;  or 
whether  it  should  be  subjoined  to  them  both.  Thus,  some 
would  say;  "  I  left  the  parcel  at  Smith's  the  bookseller  ;"  others, 
*'  at  Smith  the  bookseller's ;"  and  perhaps  others,  "  at  Smith*s 
the  bookseller's."  The  first  of  these  forms  is  most  agreeable  to 
the  Knglish  idiom  ;  and  if  the  addition  consists  of  two  or  more 


Rule  x.J  SYNTAX.  119 

words,  the  case  seems  to  be  less  dubious  :  as,  "  I  left  the  parcel 
at  Smith's,  the  bookseller  and  stationer."  But  as  this  subject 
requires  a  little  further  explanation  to  make  it  intelligible  to  the 
learners,  we  shall  add  a  few  observations  tending  to  unfold  its 
principles. 

A  phrase  in  vihich  the  words  are  so  connected  and  dependent, 
as  to  admit  of  no  pause  before  the  conclusion,  necessarily  re- 
quires the  genitive  sign  at  or  near  the  end  of  the  phrase :  as, 
"  Whose  prerogative  is  it  ?  It  is  the  king  of  Great  Britain's;" 
"That  is  the  duke  of  Bridgewater's  canal;"  "The  bishop  U 
LandafF's  excellent  book  ;"  ''The  lord  mayor  of  London's  au- 
thority ;"  "The  captain  of  the  guard's  house." 

When  words  in  apposition  follow  each  other  in  quick  succes- 
sion, it  seems  also  most  agreeable  to  our  idiom,  to  give  the  sign 
of  the  genitive  a  similar  situation  ;  especially  if  the  noun  vj^hich 
governs  the  genitive  be  expressed  :  as,  "  The  emperor  Leo- 
pold's ;"  "Diouvsius  the  tyrant's;"  "For  David  my  servmiVs 
sake  ;"  "  Give  me  John  the  Baptist's  head  ;"  "  Paul  the  apostle's 
advice."  But  when  a  pause  is  pro})cr,  and  the  governing  noun 
not  expressed;  and  w^hen  the  latter  part  of  the  sentence  is  ex- 
tended ;  it  appears  to  be  requisite  that  the  sign  should  be  applied 
to  the  first  genitive,  and  understood  to  the  other;  as,  "  I  reside 
at  lord  Stormont's,  my  old  patron  and  benefactor  ;"  "  Whose 
glory  did  he  emulate  ?  He  emulated  Cersar's,  the  greatest  general 
of  antiquity."  In  the  following  sentences,  it  would  be  very 
awkward  to  place  the  sign,  either  at  the  end  of  each  of  the 
clauses,  or  at  the  end  of  the  latter  one  alone:  "These  psalms 
arc  David's,  the  king,  priest,  and  prophet  of  the  Jewish  people  ;" 
*'  We  staid  a  month  at  lord  Lyttleton's,  the  ornament  of  his 
country,  and  the  friend  of  every  virtue."  The  sign  of  the^enitive 
case  may  very  properly  be  understood  at  the  end  of  these  mem- 
bers, an  ellipsis  at  the  latter  part  of  sentences  being  a  common 
construction  in  our  language;  as  the  learner  will  see  by  one  or 
two  examples  :  "  They  wished  to  submit,  but  he  did  not  ;"  that 
is,  "  he  did  not  wish  to  submit ;"  "  He  said  it  was  their  concern, 
but  not  his  ;"  that  is,  ^^  not  his  concern^ 

If  we  annex  the  sign  of  the  genitive  to  the  end  of  the  last 
clause  only,  we  shall  perceive  that  a  resting  place  is  wanted, 
and  thtit  the  connecting  circumstance  is  placed  too  remotely, 
to  be  either  perspicuous  or  agreeable  :  as,  "  Whose  glory  did  he 
emidate  ?"  "He  emulated  Caesar,  the  greatest  general  of  anh*- 
quity's  ;''  "These  psaln)s  are  David,  the  king,  priest,  and  prophet 
of  the  Jewish  people's.'^  It  is  much  better  to  say,  "This  is 
PauVs  advice,  the  Christian  hero,  and  great  apostle  of  the  gen- 
tiles," than,  "This  is  Paul  the  Christian  hero,  and  great  apostle 
of  the  gentiles^  advice."  On  the  other  hand,  the  application  of 
the  genitive  sign  to  both  or  all  of  the  nouns  in  apposition,  would 
be  generally  harsh  and  displeasing,  and  perhaps  in  some  cases 
incor»-ect :  as,  "  The  emperor's  Leopold's  ;"  "  King's  George's ;" 
*  Charles'  the  second's  ;"  "  The  parcel  was  left  at  Smith's  the 


120     •  ENGIJSII    GRAMMAR.  [RuleM 

bookseller's  and  stationer's."     The  rules  which  we  have  endea- 
voured to  elucidate,  will  prevent  the  inconvenience  of  both  these  , 
modes  of  expression  ;  and  they  appear  to  be  simple,  pers|icuoua,  I 
and  consistent  with  the  idiom  of  the  language. 

5  The  English  genitive  has  often  an  unpleasant  sound  ;  so 
that  we  daily  make  more  use  of  the  particle  of  to  express  tha 
same  relation.  There  is  something  awkward  in  the  following 
sentences,  in  which  this  method  has  not  been  taken.  "The 
general,  in  the  army's  name,  published  a  declaration."  "  The 
commons'  vote."  "The  lords'  house."  "Unless  he  is  very 
ignorant  of  the  kingdom's  condition."  It  were  certainly  better 
to  say,  "  In  the  name  of  the  army  ;"  "  The  vote  of  the  commons ;" 
"  The  house  of  lords  ;"  "  The  condition  of  the  kingdom."  It  is 
also  rather  harsh  to  use  two  English  genitives  with  the  same 
substantive  :  as,  "  Whom  he  acquainted  with  the  pope's  and 
the  king's  pleasure."  "  The  pleasure  of  the  pope  and  the  king,' 
would  have  been  better. 

We  sonjetimes  meet  with  three  substantives  dependent  on  one 
another,  and  connected  by  the  prejiosition  of  applied  to  each  of 
them  :  as,  "  The  severity  of  the  distress  of  the  son  of  the  ki:ig, 
touched  the  nation  ;"  but  this  mode  of  expression  is  not  to  be 
recommended.  It  would  be  better  to  say,  "  The  severe  distress 
of  the  king's  son,  touched  the  nation."  We  have  a  striking 
instance  of  this  laborious  mode  of  exj)ression,  in  the  following 
sentence :  "  Of  some  of  the  books  of  each  of  these  classes  of 
literature,  a  catalogue  will  be  given  at  the  end  of  the  work." 

6  In  some  cases,  we  use  both  the  genitive  termination  and  the 
preposition  of:  as,  "  It  is  a  discovery  of  Sir  Isaac  Newton's." 
Sometimes  indeed,  unless  we  throw  the  sentence  into  another 
form,  this  method  is  absolutely  necessary,  in  order  to  distinguish 
the  sense,  and  to  give  the  idea  of  property,  strictly  so  called, 
which  is  the  most  important  of  the  relations  expressed  by  the 
genitive  case  :  for  the  expressions,  "  This  picture  of  my  friend," 
and  "This  picture  of  my  friend's,"  suggest  very  different  ideas. 
The  latter  only  is  that  of  property  in  the  strictest  sense.  The 
idea  w^ould,  doubtless,  be  conveyed  in  a  better  manner,  by  saying, 

*  This  picture  belonging  to  my  friend." 

When  this  double  genitive,  as  some  grammarians  term  it,  is 
not  necessary  to  distinguish  the  sense,  and  especially  in  a  grave 
style,  it  is  generally  omitted.  Except  to  prevent  ambiguity,  it 
seems  to  be  allowable  only  in  cases  which  suppose  the  existence 
of  a  plurality  of  subjects  of  the  same  kind.  In  the  expressions, 
"  A  subject  of  the:  emperor's  ;"  "  A  sentiment  of  my  brother's  ;" 
more  than  one  subject,  and  one  sentiment,  are  supposed  to  belong 
to  the  Yiossessor.  But  when  this  plurality  is  neither  intimated, 
nor  necessarily  supposed,  the  double  genitive,  except  as  before 
mentioned,  should  not  be  used  :  as,  "  This  house  of  the  govej'iior 
is  very  commodious ;"  "  The  crown  of  the  king  was  stolen  ;'* 
"That  privilege  of  the  scholar  was  never  abused."  (See  page 
40.)     But  after  all  that  can  b^  said  for  this  double  genitive,  as  it 


Hulk  xi.]  SYNTAX.  121 

is  termed,  some  grammarians  think  that  it  would  be  better  to 
avoid  the  use  of  it  altogether,  and  to  give  the  sentiment  another 
form  of  expression. 

7  When  an  entire  clause  of  a  sentence,  beginning  with  a 
participle  of  the  present  tense,  is  used  as  one  name,  or  to  express 
one  idea  or  circumstance,  the  noun  on  which  it  depends  may  be 
put  in  the  genitive  case  ;  thus,  instead  of  saying,  "  What  is  the 
reason  of  this  person  dismissing  his  servant  so  hastily?'*  that  is, 
"  What  is  the  reason  of  this  person  in  dismissing  his  servant  so 
hastily  ?"  we  may  say,  and  perhaps  ought  to  say,  "  What  is  the 
reason  of  this  person's  dismissing  of  his  servant  so  hastily  ?'* 
Just  as  we  say,  **  What  is  the  reason  of  this  person's  hasty  dis- 
mission of  his  servant  P'  So  also,  we  say,  *'  I  remember  it 
being  reckoned  a  great  exploit ;"  or  more  properly,  "  I  remember 
its  being  reckoned,"  &c.  The  following  sentence  is  correct  and 
proper :  '*  Much  will  depend  on  ihepupiVs  composing^  but  more  on 
his  reading  frequently."  It  would  not  be  accurate  to  say,  **  Much 
will  depend  on  the  pupil  composing,''^  &c.  We  also  properly 
Bay  ;  **  This  will  be  the  effect  of  the  pupiVs  composing  frequently  j" 
instead  of,  **  Of  the  pupil  composing  frequently." 

RULE  XI. 

Active  verbs  govern  the  objective  case  :  as,  *'  Truth  en- 
nobles her;"  **She  comforts  me  f*  "They  support  us**; 
**  Virtue  rewards  her  followers.** 

In  English,  the  nominative  case,  denoting  the  subject,  usually 
goes  before  the  verb ;  and  the  objective  case,  denoting  the  ob- 
ject, follows  the  verb  active  ;  and  it  is  the  order  that  determines 
the  case  in  nouns ;  as,  "  Alexander  conquered  the  Persians."  But 
the  pronoun  having  a  proper  form  for  each  of  those  cases,  is  some- 
times, when  it  is  in  the  objective  case,  placed  before  the  verb  ; 
and,  when  it  is  in  the  nominative  case,  follows  the  object  and  verb ; 
as,  "  Whom  ye  ignorantly  worship,  him  declare  I  unto  you." 

This  position  of  the  pronoun  sometimes  occasions  its  proper 
case  and  government  to  be  neglected :  as  in  the  following  in- 
stances: "Who  should  I  esteem  more  than  the  wise  and  good?" 
*  By  the  character  of  those  who  you  cnoose  for  your  friends, 
your  own  is  likely  to  be  formed."  *'  Those  are  the  persons  who 
he  thought  true  to  his  interests."  "  Who  should  I  see  the  other 
day  but  my  old  friend."  "  Whoso<;ver  the  court  favours."  In 
all  these  places  it  ought  to  be  tvhom,  the  relative  being  governed 
in  the  objective  case  by  the  verbs  "  esteem,  choose,  thought," 
&c.  *'  He,  who  under  all  proper  circumstances,  has  the  boldness  to 
Fpeak  truth,  choose  for  thy  friend  *,"  It  should  be  "  him  who,"  &c. 
k  Verbs  neuter  do  not  act  upon,  or  govern,  nouns  and  pronouns, 
*'  He  sleeps ;  they  ?/iit5e,"  &c.  are  not  transitive.  They  ore, 
therefore,  not  followed  by  an  objective  case,  specifying  the  object 
of  an  action.  But  when  this  case,  or  an  object  of  action,  comes 
after  s'ich  verbs,  though  it  may  carry  the  appearance  of  being  go* 

Li 


lai 

! 


m  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR.  [Rule  xi. 

verned  by  them,  it  is  affected  by  a  preposition  or  some  other 
word  understood:  as,  "He  resided  many  years  [tnat  is,  for  or 
during  many  years]  in  that  street ;     "  He  rode  several  miles  [thai 
is,  for  or  through  the  space  of  several  miles]  on  that  day ;"  "  Hi 
lay  an  hour  [that  is,  during  an  hour]  in  great  torture."     In  tl 
phrases  "  To  dream  a  dream,"  "  To  hve  a  virtuous  Ufe,"  "To  ru] 
a  race,"  "  To  walk  the  horse,"  "  To  dance  the  child,"  the  verl 
certainly  assume  a  transitive  form,  and  may  not,  m  these  casei 
be  improperly  denominated  transitive  verbs. 

1  Some  writers,  however,  use  certain  neuter  verbs  as  if  the[ 
were  transitive,  putting  after  them  the  objective  case,  agreeably 
to  the  French  construction  of  reciprocal  verbs;  but  this  custom 
is  so  foreign  to  the  idiom  of  the  English  tongue,  that  it  ought  not 
to  be  adopted  or  imitated.  The  following  are  some  instances  ol 
this  practice.  "  Repenting  him  of  his  design."  "  The  king  soon 
found  reason  to  repent  him  of  his  provoking  such  dangerous  ene- 
mies." "  The  popular  lords  did  not  fail  to  enlarge  themselves  on 
the  subject."  "  The  nearer  his  successes  approached  him  to  the 
throne."  "  Go  fiee  thee  away  into  the  land  of  Judah."  "  I  think 
it  by  no  means  a  fit  and  decent  thing  to  vie  charities,"  &c.  "  They 
have  spent  their  whole  time  and  pains  to  agree  the  sacred  with 
the  profane  chronology." 

2  Active  verbs  are  sometimes  as  improperly  made  neuter :  as, 
"I  must  premise  with  three  circumstances."  "Those  that  think 
to  ingratiate  with  him  by  calumniating  me." 

3  The  neuter  verb  is  varied  like  the  active ;  but,  having  in 
some  degree  the  nature  of  the  passive,  it  admits,  in  many  instances, 
of  the  passive  form,  retaining  still  the  neuter  signification,  chiefl}' 
in  such  verbs  as  signify  some  sort  of  motion,  or  change  of  placo 
or  condition  :  as,  "  I  am  come ;  1  was  gone  ;  I  am  grown  ;  I  was 
fallen."     The  following  examples,  however,  appear  to  be  errone 
ous,  in  giving  the  neuter  verbs  a  passive  form,  instead  of  an  ac 
tive  one.     "  The  rule  of  our  holy  religion,  from  which  we  are  in 
finitely  swerved,'^'*     "  The  whole  obligation  of  that  law  and  cove 
nam  was  also  ceased^     Whose  number  was  now  amounted  to 
three  hundred."     "  This  mareschal,  upon  some  discontent,  was 
entered  into  a  conspiracy  against  his  master.''     "  At  the  end  of  a 
campaign,  when  half  the  men  are  deserted  or  killed."     It  should 
be,  "  have  swerved,  had  ceased,"  &c. 

4  The  verb  to  he,  through  all  its  variations,  has  the  same  case 
after  it,  as  that  which  next  precedes  it:  "/  am  he  whom  they 
mvited;"  "  It  may  be  (or  might  have  been)  he,  but  it  cannot  be 
(or  could  not  have  been)  /;"  "  It  is  impossible  to  be  they ;"  **  It 
seems  to  have  been  he,  who  conducted  himself  so  wisely  ;"  "il 
appeared  to  be  she  that  transacted  the  business ;"  **  I  understood 
it  10  hQ  him  ;^^  "  I  believe  i7  to  have  been  themf^  "We  at  first 
look  it  to  be  her ;  but  were  afterward  convinced  that  it  was  not 
shey  "  He  is  not  the  person  who  it  seemed  he  was."  "  He  is 
really  the  person  who  he  appeared  to  be."  "  She  is  not  now 
the  woman  whom  they  represtJiUed  hei  to  have  been."    "  Wh(fyt% 


Rule  xii.]  SYNTAX.  123 

do  you  fancy  him  to  be  ?'*  By  these  examples,  it  appears  that 
this  substantive  verb  has  no  government  of  case,  but  serves,  in 
all  its  forms,  as  a  conductor  to  the  cases;  so  that  the  two  cases 
wiiich,  in  the  construction  of  the  sentence,  are  the  next  before 
and  after  it,  must  always  be  alike.  Perhaps  this  subject  will  be 
more  intelligible  to  the  learner,  by  observing,  that  the  words  in 
the  cases  preceding  and  folio  whig  the  verb  to  be,  may  be  said  to 
be  in  apposition  to  each  other.  Thus,  in  the  sentence,  "  I  un- 
derstood it  to  be  him,"  the  words  it  and  him  are  in  apposition  ; 
that  is,  "  they  refer  to  the  same  thing,  and  are  in  the  same  case." 

The  following  sentences  contain  deviations  from  the  rule,  and 
exhibit  the  pronoun  in  a  wrong  case  :  "  It  might  have  been  him, 
but  there  is  no  proof  of  it  ;"  "  Though  I  was  blamed,  it  could 
not  have  been  me  ;"  "  I  saw  one  whom  I  took  to  be  she  ;"  "  She 
is  the  person  who  I  understood  it  to  have  l^een  ;"  "  Who  do  you 
think  me  to  l«^  ?'^  "  JVhom  do  men  say  that  I  am  .^"  "  And 
ivhovi  think  ye  that  I  am  ?" — Ste  the  Octavo  Grammar* 

Passive,  verbs  which  signify  naming,  &c.  have  the  same  case 
before  and  after  them:  as,  "  He  was  called  Caesar;  She  was 
named  Penelope  ;  Homer  is  styled  the  prince  of  poets  ;  James 
was  created  a  duke  ;  Tho  general  was  saluted  emperor;  The 
professor  was  appointed  tutor  to  the  prince." 

5  The  auxiliary  let  governs  the  objective  case  :  as,  **  Let  him 
beware  ;"  **  Let  us  judge  candidly  ;^'  *'  Let  them  not  presume  ;'* 
•*  Let  George  study  bis  lesson." 

RULE  XIL 

One  verb  governs  another  that  follows  it,  or  depends  upon 
it,  in  the  infinitive  mood  :  as,  *'  Cease  to  do  evil ;  learn  to  do 
well ;"  "  We  should  be  prepared  to  rendar  an  account  ol 
our  actions." 

I'he  preposition  to,  though  generally  used  before  the  lat- 
ter verb,  is  sometimes  properly  omitted  ;  as,  "  I  heard  him 
say  it ;"  instead  of  '*  to  say  it." 

The  verbs  which  have  commonly  other  verbs  following  them 
in  the  infinitive  mood,  without  the  sign  to,  are  Bid,  dare,  need, 
make,  see,  hear,  feel ;  and  also,  let,  not  used  as  an  auxiliary  ;  and 
perhaps  a  few  others :  as,  "  I  bade  him  do  it ;"  "  Ye  dare  not  do 
it;"  "  I  saw  him  do  it ;"  "  I  heard  him  say  it;"  **  Thou  lettest 
him  go." 

1  \\\  the  following  passages,  the  word  to,  the  sign  of  the  infini 
tive  mood,  where  it  is  distinguished  by  Italic  characters,  is  su 
{)erfluous  and  improper.  "  I  have  observed  some  satirists  to  use," 
&c.  "  To  see  so  many  to  make  so  little  conscience  of  so  great 
a  sin."  **  It  cannot  but  be  a  delightful  s])ectacle  to  God  and  an- 
gels, to  see  a  young  person,  besieged  by  powerful  temptations  on 
every  side,  to  acquit  himself  gloriously,  and  resolutely  to  hold  out 
against  the  most  violent  assaults;  to  behold  one  in  the  prime 
and  flower  of  jiis  age,  that  is  courted  by  pleasures  and  honours. 


124  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR.  [Rule  xiii 

by  the  devil,  and  all  tlie  bewitching  vanities  of  the  world,  to  rMJ 
ject  all  these,  and  to  cleave  steadfastly  unto  God."  VI 

This  inood  has  also  been  improperly  used  in  the  following 
places:  *'l  am  not  like  otlier  men,  to  envy  the  talents  I  cannot 
reach."  "  Grammarians  have  denied,  or  at  least  doubted,  them 
io  be  genuine  ;"  "  That  all  our  doings  may  be  ordered  by  thy 
governance,  to  do  always  what  is  righteous  in  thy  sight." 


I 


The  infinitive  is  frequently  governed  b}^  adjectives,  substa: 
tives,  and  participles  :  as,  ''  He  is  eager  to  ieain  ;''  "  She  is  wo; 
thy  to  be  loved  "  "  They  have  a  desire  to  improve  ;"  Endeavoui 
ing  to  persuade  " 

The  infinitive  mood  has  much  of  the  nature  of  a  substantiv 
expressing  the  action  itself  which  the  verb  signifies,  as  the  parti- 
ciple has  the  nature  of  an  adjective.  .Thus  the  infinitive  mood 
does  the  ofliice  of  a  substantive  in  different  cases  :  in  the  nomi- 
native: as,  "To  play  is  pleasant:"  in  the  objective  :  as,  **  Boys 
love  to  play  f^  "  For  to  ivill  is  present  with  me  ;  but  to  perform 
that  which  is  good,  I  find  not." 

The  infinitive  mood  is  often  made  absolute,  or  used  indepen- 
dently on  the  rest  of  the  sentence,  bapplying  the  place  of  the 
conjunction  that  with  the  potential  mood :  as,  "  To  confess  the 
truth,  I  was  in  fault ;"  "  To  begin  with  the  first ;"  "  To  pro 
ceed;"  "  To  conclude  ;"  that  is,  "  That  I  may  confess,"  &(i 

RULE  XIIL 

In  the  use  of  words  and  phrases  which,  in  point  of  time, 
relate  to  each  other,  a  due  regard  to  that  relation  should  be 
observed.  Instead  of  saying,  "  The  Lord  hath  given,  and 
the  Lord  hath  taken  away  ;"  we  should  say,  "  The  Lord 
gave,  and  the  Lord  halh  taken  away."  Instead  of,  "  I  remem- 
her  the  family  more  than  twenty  years  ;"  it  should  be,  **  I 
have  remembered  the  family  more  than  twenty  years." 

It  is  not  easy  to  give  particular  rules  for  the  management  of 
the  moods  and  tenses  of  verbs  with  respect  to  one  another^  so 
that  they  may  be  proper  and  consistent.  The  best  rule  that  can 
be  given,  is  this  very  general  one :  '•  To  observe  what  the  sense 
necessarily  requires."  It  may,  however,  be  of  use  to  give  a  few 
examples  of  irregular  construction.  "The  last  week  I  intended 
to  have  wmtten,^''  is  a  very  common  ])Lrise;  the  infinit've  being 
in  the  past  time,  as  well  as  the  verb  which  it  follows.  But  it  is 
certainly  wrong  ;  for  how  long  soever  it  now  is  since  I  thought 
of  writing,  "  to  write"  was  then  present  to  me,  and  must  still  he 
considered  as  present,  when  1  bring  back  that  time,  and  the 
thoughts  of  it.  It  ought,  therefore,  to  be,  "  The  last  week  I 
intended  to  write,^^  The  following  sentences  are  also  erroneous  ; 
"  I  cannot  excuse  the  remissness  of  those  wdiose  business  it 
should  have  been,  as  it  certainly  was  their  interest,  to  have  m^ 
terposed  their  good  offices,"    "  There  were  two  circumstaxices 


RcLEXiii.]  SYNTAX  125 

which  made  it  necetssary  for  them  to  have  lost  no  time."  "  His-* 
tory  painters  would  have  found  it  difficult  to  have  invented  such 
a  species  of  beings."  They  ought  to  be,  "  io  interposey  to  loscy  to 
invent,^^  "On  tlie  morrow,  because  he  sliouJd  have  known  the 
certainty,  wherefore  he  v/as  accused  of  the  Jews,  he  loosed  him." 
It  ought  to  be,  "  because  be  would  know,'"  or  rather,  "  hting 
tvilling  to  knowy 

"  The  blind  man  said  unto  him,  Lord,  that  I  might  receive  my 
sight."  "If  by  any  means  I  might  attain  unto  the  resurrection 
of  the  dead;"  ^^ may,''  in  both  places,  would  have  been  better. 
*'■  From  his  biblical  knowledge,  he  appears  to  study  the  Scriptures 
with  great  attention  ;"  "  to  have  studied,'^  &c.  "  I  feared  tliat  1 
should  have  lost  it,  before  I  arrived  at  the  city  ;"  ^^  should  lose  it.'* 
*'  I  had  rather  walk  ;"  It  should  be,  "  I  would  rather  walk."  "It 
would  have  afforded  me  no  satisfaction,  if  I  could  perform  it:" 
it  should  be,  "  if  I  could  have  performed  it ;"  or,  "  It  would  afford 
ine  no  satisfaction,  if  I  could  perform  it." 

To  preserve  consistency  in  the  time  of  verbs,  we  must  re- 
collect that,  in  the  subjunctive  mood,  the  present  and  imperfect 
tenses  often  carry  with  them  a  future  sense  ;  and  that  the  aux- 
iliaries should  and  would,  in  the  imperfect  times,  are  used  to  ex- 
press the  present  and  future  as  well  as  the  past :  for  wdiich  see 
page  59. 

1  It  is  proper  further  to  observe,  that  verbs  of  the  infinitive 
mood  in  the  following  form  ;  "  to  write,"  "  to  be  writing,"  and 
"  to  be  written,"  always  denote  sometliing  contemporary  ivith  the 
time  of  the  governing  verl),  or  subsequent  to  it:  but  when  verbs 
of  that  mood  are  expressed  as  follows  ;  "  To  have  been  writing," 
"  to  have  written,"  and  "  to  have  been  written,"  they  always 
denote  something  antecedent  to  the  time  of  the  governing  verb. 
This  remark  is  thought  to  be  of  importance  ;  for  if  duly  attended 
to,  it  will,  in  most  cases,  be  sufficient  to  direct  us  in  the  relative 
application  of  these  tenses. 

The  following  sentence  is  properly  and  analogically  expressed: 
*  I  found  him  better  than  I  expected  to  find  him."  "  Expected 
to  have  found  liim,"  is  irreconcilable  alike  to  grammar  and  to 
Eense.  Indeed,  all  verbs  expressive  of  hope,  desire,  intention, 
or  command,  must  invariably  be  followed  by  the  present,  and 
not  the  perfect  of  the  infinitive.  Every  person  would  perceive 
an  error  in  this  expression  ;  "  It  is  long  since  I  commanded  him 
to  have  done  it :"  Yet  "  expected  to  have  found,^^  is  no  better.  It 
IS  as  clear  that  the  finding  must  be  posterior  to  the  expectation, 
as  that  the  obedience  must  be  posterior  to  the  command. 

In  the  sentence  which  follows,  the  verb  is  with  propriety  put 
in  the  perfect  tense  of  the  infinitive  mood ;  "  It  wonld  have 
affiDrded  me  great  pleasure,  as  often  as  I  reflected  upon  it, /o  have 
been  the  messenger  of  such  intelligence."  As  the  message,  in 
this  instance,  was  antecedent  to  the  pleasure,  and  not  contem- 
porary with  it,  the  verb  expressive  of  the  message  must  denote 
that  antecedence,  by  being  in  the  perfect  of  the  infinitive.    If 

L2 


1^  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR.  [Rule  x^| 

the  message  and  llie  pleasure  had  been  referred  to  aa  contem- 
porary, the  subsequent  verb  would,  with  equal  propriety,  have 
been  put  in  the  present  of  the  infinitive:  as,  "It  would  have 
afforded  me  great  pleasure,  to  he  the  messenger  of  such  intelli- 
gence." In  the  former  instance,  the  phrase  in  question  is  equi- 
valent to  these  words  ;  ^^  If  I  had  been  the  messenger  ;"  in  the 
jatter  instance,  to  this  expression  ;  '*  Being  the  messenger.'* — 
For  a  further  discussion  of  this  subject,  see  the  Eleventh  edition 
lof  the  Key  to  the  Exercises,  p.  GO,  and  the  Octavo  Grammar, 
Role  xiir. 

It  is  proper  to  inform  the  learner,  that,  in  order  to  express  the 
past  time  with  the  defective  verb  ought,  the  perfect  of  the  infini- 
tive must  always  be  used:  as,  *'  He  ought  to  have  done  it."  When 
we  use  this  verb,  this  is  the  only  possible  way  to  distinguish  the 
past  from  the  present. 

In  support  of  the  positions  advanced  under  this  rule,  we  can 
produce  the  sentiments  of  eminent  grammarians;  amongst  whom 
are  Lowth  and  Campbell.  But  there  are  some  writers  on 
grammar,  who  strenuously  maintain,  that  the  governed  verb  in 
the  infinitive  ought  to  be  in  the  past  tense,  wdien  the  verb  which 
governs  it,  is  in  the  past  time.  Though  this  cannot  be  admitted, 
.*n  the  instances  which  are  controverted  under  this  rule,  or  in 
any  instances  of  a  similar  nature,  yet  there  can  be  no  doubt  that, 
m  many  cases,  in  which  the  thing  referred  to  preceded  the  go* 
verning  verb,  it  would  be  proper  and  allowable.  We  may  say  ; 
"  From  a  conversation  I  once  had  with  him,  he  appeared  to  have 
studied  Homer  with  great  care  and  judgment."  It  would  bo 
proper  also  to  say,  "  From  his  conversation,  he  appears  to  have 
studied  Homer  with  great  care  and  judgment ;"  "  That  unhappy 
man  is  supposed  to  have  died  by  violence."  These  examples  are 
not  only  consistent  with  our  rule,  but  they  confirm  and  illustrate 
it.  It  is  the  tense  of  the  governing  verb  only,  that  marks  whi 
is  called  the  absolute  time  ;  the  tense  of  the  verb  governea, 
marks  solely  its  relative  time  with  respect  to  the  other. 

To  assert,  as  some  writers' do,  that  verbs  in  the  infinitive  mood 
have  no  tenses,  no  relative  distinctions  of  present,  past,  and 
future,  is  inconsistent  with  just  grammatical  views  of  the  subject. 
That  these  verbs  associate  with  verbs  in  all  the  tenses,  is  no  proof 
of  their  having  no  peculiar  time  of  their  own.  Whatever  period 
the  governing  verb  assumes,  whether  present,  past,  or  future, 
the  governed  verb  in  the  infinitive  always  respects  that  period, 
and  its  time  is  calculated  from  it.  Thus,  the  time  of  the  infini- 
tive may  be  before,  after,  or  the  same  as,  the  time  of  the  go  • 
verning  verb,  according  as  the  thing  signified  by  the  infinitive 
is  supposed  to  be  before,  after,  or  present  with,  the  thing  denoted 
by  the  governing  verb.  It  is,  therefore,  with  great  propriety, 
that  tenses  are  assigned  to  verbs  of  the  infinitive  mood.  The 
pointof  time  from  which  they  are  computed,  is  of  no  consequence  j 
since  present,  past,  and  future,  are  completely  applicable  to  thera* 

We  shall  conclude  our  observations  under  this  rule,  by  re- 


Rule  xiv.]  SYNTAX.  127 

marking,  that  llioiigh  it  is  often  proper  to  use  the  perfect  ot  the 
jnlinitivc  after  the  governing  verb,  yet  there  are  particular  cases, 
in  v^'iiicli  it  would  be  better  to  give  tlie  expression  a  difl'erent 
form.  Thus,  instead  of  saying,  "  I  wish  to  liave  written  to  him 
gooner,"  "  I  then  wished  to  have  written  to  hi:n  sooner,"  "He 
will  one  day  wish  to  have  written  sooner ;"  it  would  be  more 
(  perspicuous  and  t'orcible,  as  well  as  more  agreeable  to  the  practice 
I  of  good  writers,  to  say  ;  *'  1  wish  that  I  had  written  to  him 
sooner,*'  "  I  then  wished  that  I  had  written  to  him  sooner,"  "  He 
will  one  day  wish  that  he  had  written  sooner."  Should  the 
justness  of  tbese  strictures  be  admitted,  there  would  still  be 
numerous  occasions  for  the  use  of  the  past  infinitive  ;  as  we  may 
perceive  by  a  few  examples.  "  It  would  ever  afterwards  have 
been  a  source  of  pleasure  to  have  found  him  wise  and  virtuous.*' 
"To have  deferred  his  repentance  longer,  would  have  disqualified 
him  for  repenting  at  all."  "  They  will  then  see,  that  to  have 
faithfully  performed  their  duty,  would  have  been  their  greatest 
consolation."* 

RULE  XIV. 

Participles  have  the  same  government  as  the  verbs  have 
from  which  they  are  derived  :  as,  *'  I  am  weary  with  hear- 
ing  him  ;"  *'  She  ic  instructing  us  ;"  "  The  tutor  is  admo- 
mshing  Charles,*^ 

I  Participles  are  sometimes  governed  by  the  article ;  for  the 
present  participle,  with  the  definite  article  the  before  it,  becomes  a 
substantive,  and  must  have  the  prep(»sition  o/ after  it :  as,  "  These 
are  the  rules  of  grammar,  by  the  observing  of  which,  you  may 
avoid  mistakes."  It  would  not  be  proper  to  say,  "  by  the  ob- 
serving which  ;"  nor,  "  by  observing  of  which  ;"  but  the  phrase, 
without  either  article  or  preposition,  would  be  right :  as,  "  by  ob- 
serving which."  The  article  a  or  an,  has  the  same  eflect :  as, 
"This  was  a  betraying  of  the  trust  reposed  in  him." 

This  rule  arises  from  the  nature  and  idiom  of  our  language, 
and  from  as  plain  a  principle  as  any  on  which  it  is  founded  ; 
namely,  that  a  word  which  has  the  article  before  it,  and  thejios- 
sessive  preposition  o/"  after  it,  must  be  a  noun  :  and,  if  a  noun,  it 
ought  to  follow  the  construction  of  a  noun,  and  not  to  have  the 
regimen  of  a  verb.  It  is  the  participial  termination  of  this  son 
of  words  that  is  apt  to  de-^.eive  us,  and  make  us  treat  them  as  if 
they  were  of  an  amphibious  species,  partly  nouns  and  partly 
verbs. 

The  following  are  a  few  examples  of  the  violation  of  this  rule. 
"He  was  sent  to  prepare  the  way  by  preaching  of  repentance  ;'* 
it  ought  to  be,  "by  the  preaching  of  repentance;"  or,  "by 
preaching  repentance."  *'"By  the  continual  mortifying  our  cor- 
rupt affections  j"  it  should  be,  "  by  the  continual  mortifying  q/",** 

*  Sep  Key  to  liie  English  Exercises,  Eleventh  Edit.  Rule  xiii.    The  Note. 


128  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR.  [Rule 

or,  "  by  continually  mortifying  our  corrupt  alTections.'*     **  Tliey  j 
iaid  out  themselves  towards //le  advancing  and  promoting  tho 
good  of  il ;"  "  towards  advancing  land  promoting  the  good.'-  "  It  i 
is  an  overvaluing  ourselves,  to  reduce  every  thing  to  the  narrow  i 
measure  of  our  capacities  ;"  '•*  it  is  overvaluing  ourselves,"  or, "«»  I 
overvaluing  o/ourselves."     *'  Keeping  of  one  divj  in  seven,"  &c.'.  ] 
it  ought  to  be,  "  ilie  keeping"  o/'onc  day  ;"  or,  "  keeping  one  day.T 
A  plirase  in  which  the  ariicle  precedes  the  present  particijde 
and  the  possessive  preposition  follows  it,  will  not,  in  every  in- 
stance, convey  the  same  meaning  as  would  be  conveyed  by  the 
participle  without  the  article  and  preposition.     *'  He  expressed 
the  pleasure  he  had  in  the  hearing  of  the  philosopher,"  is  capa- 
ble of  a  different  sense  from,  "He  expressed  the  pleasure  he  had 
in  hearing  the  philosopher."     When,  therefore,  we  wish,  for  the 
sake  of  harmony  or  variety,  to  substitute  one  of  these  phraseolo- 
gies for  the  other,  we  should  previously  consider  whether  they 
are  perfectly  similar  in- the  sentiments  they  convey. 

2  The  same  observations  which  have  been  made  respecting 
the  effect  of  the  article  and  participle,  appear  to  be  applicable  to 
the  pronoun  aiid  particiijle,  when  they  are  sunilarly  associated :  as, 
"  Much  depends  on  their  ohscrving  of  the  rule,  and  error  will  be 
the  consequence  of  their  neglecting  of  it,"  instead  of  "their  ob- 
serving the  rule,  and  their  neglecting  it."  We  shall  perceive  this 
more  clearly,  if  we  substitute  a  noun  for  the  pronoun  :  as,  "Much 
depends  upon  Tyro^s  ohserving  of  the  rule,"  &c.  But,  as  lliis 
construction  sounds  rather  harshly,  it  would,  in  general,  be  bet- 
ter to  express  the  sentiment  in  the  following,  or  some  other  form  : 
"  Much  depends  on  the  ruWs  being  observed ;  and  error  will  be 
the  consequence  of  its  being  neglected ;"  or — "  on  observing  the 
rule;  and — of  neglecting  it."  This  remark  may  be  applied  to 
several  other  modes  of  expression  to  be  found  in  this  work ; 
which,  though  they  are  contended  for  as  strictly  correct,  are  not 
always  the  most  eligible,  on  account  of  their  unpleasant  sound. 
See  pages  33,  55,  1 18— 121 . 

We  sometimes  meet  with  expressions  like  the  following  :  "  T?i 
forming  of  his  sentences,  he  was  very  exact ;"  "  From  calling  of 
names,  he  proceeded  to  blows."  But  this  is  ijicorrect  language  ; 
for  prepositions  do  not,  like  articles  and  y  ronouns,  convert  the 
participle  itself  into  the  nature  of  a  substantive  ;  as  we  have 
shown  above  in  the  phrase,  "  By  observing  which."  And  yet 
the  participle  with  its  adjuncts,  may  be  considered  as  a  substan- 
tive phrase  in  the  objective  case,  governed  by  the  preposition  or 
verb,  expressed  or  understood :  as,  "  By  promising  viuch^  and 
'performing  but  little,  we  become  despicable."  "He  studied  to 
avoid  expressing  himself  too  severely. ^^ 

3  As  the  perfect  participle  and  the  imperfect  tense  are  some- 
times different  in  their  form,  care  must  be  taken  tjiat  they  be  not 
indiscriminately  used.  It  is  frequently  said,  "  He  begun,"  for 
"he  began;"  "he  run,"  for  "he  ran;"  "He  drujik,"  for  "he 
drank;"  the  participle  being  here  used  iustcad  of  the  imperfect 


r.EXv.  1  SYNTAX.  129 

riL^e :  and  much  more  frequently  the  imy)errect  tense  instead  ol 
lie  ])arti(:iple:  as,  "  \  had  wrote,"  for  "  1  liad  written  :"  "I  v/as 
lidse,"  for,  "  1  was  chosen  ;"  "  1  have  eat,"  for,  '*  i  have  eaten." 
'  liis  words  were   interwove   witii  sighs;"  "were  inttrwoven.^^ 

•  Uii  would  iiave  s})oke  ;"  "  spoken.'^  "  He  hath  bore  witness  to 
iji.-»  faithful  servants  5"  "  horne.^^  *'  By  this  means  he  over-run  hig 
[iuide ;"  "  over-rany  "  The  sun  has  rose  ;"  "  ruen.''''  "  His  con- 
stitution has  been  greatly  ^hook^  but  liis  mind  is  too  strong  to  be 
^liook  b}^  such  causes  ;"  "'  shaken,^^  in  both  ]jkices.  **  They  were 
verses  wrote  on  glass ;"  "ii^H/ie/j."  "Philosophers  have  often 
mistook  the  sourceof  true  happiness  :"  it  ought  to  be  ^^ mistaken.'*' 

The  participle  ending  in  ed  is  often  improperly  contracted  by 
changing  e^into  t;  as,  "In  good  behaviour,  he  is  not  surpast by 
any  pupil  of  the  school."  "  Slje  was  much  disirest."  They 
ought  to  be  '^  surpassedi^'  "  distressed.'''' 

RULE   XV. 

Advtrbs,  though  they  have  no  government  of  case,  tense, 
&;c.  require  an  appropriate  situation  in  the  sentence,  viz. 
for  the  most  part,  before  adjectives,  after  verbs  active  or 
neuter,  and  frequently  between  the  auxiliary  and  the  verb: 
as,  "He  made  a  very  sensible  discourse  ;  he  spoke  unaffeci' 
€dly  ^x\A  forcibly ,  and  zoas  attentively  heard  by  the  whole 
assembly." 

A  few  instances  of  erroneous  positions  of  adverbs  may  serve 
to  illustrate  the  rule.  **  He  must  not  expect  to  find  study  agree- 
able always;"  ''^always  agreeable."  "We  always  find  them 
ready  when  we  want  them ;"  "  we  find  them  always  ready," 
&c.  "  Dissertations  on  the  prophecies  which  have  remarkably 
been  fulfilled  ;"  "  which  have  been  remarkably.''''  *'  Instead  ol 
looking  contemptuously  down  on  the  crooked  in  mind  or  in  body, 
we  should  look  up  thankfully  to  God.  who  hath  made  us  better  ;' 

*  instead  of  looking  down  contemptuously^  <fcc.  we  should  thank 
fSilly  look  up,^''  &c.  "  If  thou  art  blessed  naturally  with  a  good 
memory,  continually  exercise  it ;"  "  naturally  hlesscdj*^  &c.  "  ex 
ercise  it  continually. "^^ 

Sometimes  the  adverb  is  placed  with  propriety  before  the 
verb,  or  at  some  distance  after  it;  sometimes  between  the  two 
auxiliaries  ;  and  sometimes  after  them  both  ;  as  in  the  following 
example  j^.  "  Vice  always  creeps  by  degrees,  and  insensibly 
twines  around  us  those  concealed  fetters,  by  which  we  are  at 
last  completely  bound."  "He  encouraged  the  English  Barons  to 
carry  their  opposition  farther.^^  **  They  compelled  him  to  de- 
clare that  he  would  abjure  the  realm  for  ever  ;^'  instead  of,  **  to 
carry  farther  their  opposition  ;"  and  "  to  abjure  for  ever  the 
realm."  "  He  has  generally  been  reckoned  an  honest  man." 
"  The  book  may  always  be  had  at  such  a  ])lace  ;"  in  preference 
to  "  has  been  generally  ;"   and  "  may  be  always.'*      "  These 


adB 


i30  ENGLISH  GRAMMAll.  [Rule  x 

rules  will  be  clearly  understood,  after  they  hare  been  diligevJ.li 
studied,"  are  preferable  to,  "  These  rules  will  clearly  be  under- 
stood, after  they  have  diligently  been  studied."  ~" 

From  the  preceding  remarks  and  examples,  it  appears  that 
exact  and  determinate  rule  can  be  given  for  the  j)lacing  of  au 
verbs,  on  all  occasions.  The  general  rule  may  be  of  considerable 
use  ;  but  the  easy  flow  and  pers[)icuity  of  the  phrase,  are  the 
things  w^hicli  ought  to  be  chiefly  regarded. 

The  adverb  there  is  often  used  as  an  expletive,  or  as  a  word 
that  adds  nothing  to  the  sense ;  in  which  case  it  precedes  the 
verb  and  the  nominative  noun,  as,  "There  is  a  person  at  the 
door;"  "  There  are  some  thieves  in  the  house  ;"  wljich  would 
be  as  well,  or  better,  expressed  by  saying,  *'  A  person  is  at  the 
door ;"  "  Some  thieves  are  in  the  house."  Sometimes,  it  is  made 
use  of  to  give  a  small  degree  of  emphasis  to  the  sentence  :  as, 
"  There  was  a  man  sent  from  God,  whose  name  was  John.'* 
When  it  is  applied  in  its  strict  sense,  it  principally  follows  the 
verb  and  the  nominative  case  :  as,  "  The  man  stands  there.^^ 

1  The  adverb  never  generally  precedes  the  verb :  as,  "  I  never 
was  there  ;"  "  He  never  comes  at  a  proper  time."  When  an 
auxiliary  is  used,  it  is  placed  indifferently,  either  before  or  after 
this  adverb :  ais,  "  He  was  never  seen  (or  never  was  seen)  to 
laugh  from  that  time." 

Jiever  seems  to  be  improperly  used  in  the  following  i)assages. 
"  Ask  me  never  so  much  dowry  and  gift."  *'  If  I  make  my 
hands  never  so  clean."  "  Charm  he  never  so  wisely."  The 
word  "  eve?'"  would  be  more  suitable  to  the  sense. 

2  In  imitation  of  the  French  idiom,  the  adverb  of  place  ivhere^ 
is  often  used  instead  of  the  pronoun  relative  and  a  preposition. 
"They  framed  a  protestation,  where  they  repeated  all  their  for- 
mer claims  ;"  i.  e.  *'  in  which  they  repeated."  "  The  king  was 
still  determined  to  run  forwards,  in  the  same  course  where  he  was 
already,  by  his  precipitate  career,  too  fatally  advanced;"  i.e. 
"  in  which  he  was."  But  it  would  be  better  to  avoid  this  mode 
of  expression. 

The  adverbs  hence,  thence,  and  whence,  imply  a  preposition  , 
for  they  signify,  *♦  from  this  place,  from  that  place,  from  what 
place."  It  seems,  therefore,  strictly  speaking,  to  be  improper  to 
join  a  preposition  with  them,  because  it  is  superfluous  :  as, 
**  This  is  the  leviathan,  from  whence  the  wits  of  our  age  are  said 
to  borrow  their  weapons  ;"  "  An'incient  author  prophesies  from 
hence."  But  the  origin  of  these  words  is  little  attended  to,  and 
the  preposition /row  so  often  used  in  construction  with  theni,  thai 
the  omission  of  it,  in  many  cases,  would  seem  stiff,  and  be  disa- 
greeable. 

The  adverbs  here,  there,  where,  are  often  improperly  applied  to 
verbs  signifying  motion,  instead  of  the  adverbs  hither,  thither, 
whither:  as,  "He  came  /lere  hastily  ;"  "They  rode  therewith 
speed."  They  should  be,  **  He  came  hither ;"  "  Thev  rode 
thither  "  &c» 


LE  XVI,  xvH.]  SYNTAX.  131 

;]  We  have  some  examples  of  adverbs  behig  used  for  substan- 
tives: '*  In  1687,  he  erected  it  into  a  community  of  regulars, 
t:ince  wherij  it  has  begun  to  increase  in  those  countries  as  a  reli- 
gious order;"  i.e.  ''  since  whichtime."  "  A  httle  while  and  I  shall 
ij  not  see  you  ;"  i.  e.  "  a  short  time.'^  *'  It  is  vrorth  their  while  ;'' 
i  i.  e.  •'  it  deserves  their  time  and  pains."  But  this  use  of  the  word 
rather  suits  familiar  than  grave  style.  The  same  may  be  said 
of  the  phrase,  "  To  do  a  thing  anyhow  f  i.  e.  *'  in  any  manner  ;" 
or,  "  somehow  ;"  i.  e.  "  in  some  manner."  *'  Somehow,  worthy 
as  these  people  are,  they  are  under  the  influence  of  prejudice  " 

RULE  XVL 

Two  negatives,  in  English,  destroy  one  another,  or  are 
equivalent  to  an  affirmative:  as,  *'  jVbr did  they  not  perceive 
him  ;"  that  is,  **  they  did  perceive  him."  "  His  language, 
though  inelegant,  is  not  ungrarnmaiical  f'  that  is,  "  it  is 
grammatical." 

It  is  better  to  express  an  affirmation,  by  a  regular  affirmative, 
than  by  two  separate  negatives,  as  in  th^  former  sentence  :  but 
when  one  of  the  negatives  is  joined  to  another  word,  as  in  the  lat- 
ter sentence,  the  two  negatives  form  a  pleasing  and  delicate  va- 
riety of  expression. 

Some  writers  have  improperly  employed  two  negatives  instead 
of  one;  as  in  fhe  following  instances:  "I  never  did  repent  of 
doing  good,  nor  shall  not  now  ;"  "  nor  shall  I  now^  *' Never  no 
imitator  grew  up  to  his  author;"  ^^  never  did  any^^^  &c.  **  I  can- 
not by  no  means  allow  him  what  his  argument  must  prove  ;" 
**  I  cannot  by  any  means,"  &c.  or,  "  I  can  by  no  means.''''  "Nor 
let  no  comforter  approach  me  ;"  "  nor  let  any  comforter,"  &c. 
"  Nor  is  danger  ever  apjjrehended  in  such  a  government,  no  more 
than  we  commonly  apprehend  danger  from  thunder  or  earth- 
quakes :"  it  should  be,  ''  any  more.'*''  "  Ariosto,  Tasso,  Galileo, 
no  more  than  Raphael,  were  not  born  in  republics."  "  Neither 
Ariosto,  Tasso,  nor  Galileo,  any  more  than  Raphael,  was  born 
ill  a  republic." 

RULE  XVIT.  * 

Prepo.Hitions  govern  the  objective  case  :  as,  "  I  have 
heard  a  good  character  of  her  ;"  "  From  him  that  is  needy 
turn  not  away  ;"  "  A  word  to  the  wise  is  ^w^xcieni  for  them  f 
**  We  may  be  good  and  happy  zoithout  riches." 

The  following  are  examples  of  the  nominative  case  being  used 
instead  of  the  objective.  "  Who  servest  thou  under  ?"  "  Who  do 
you  speak  to?"  **  We  are  still  much  at  a  loss  who  civil  power 
belongs  to :"  *'  Who  dost  thou  ask  for  ?"  *'  Associate  not  with 
those  who  none  can  speak  well  of."  In  all  these  places  it  ought 
to  be  "  ?f?/iom,"     See  JVoie  1. 

The  prepositions  to  mid  for  are  often  understood,  chiefly  before 


\n  EiVGLTSH  GRAMMAR.  'Rule  xvii, 

the  pronouns:  as,  "  Give  me  the  book  ;"  "  Get  me  some  paper;" 
that  is,  "  to  me  ;  for  me.'*  ''  Wo  is  me  ;"  i.  e.  ''to  me/'  '*  He  was 
banished  England  ;"  i.  e.  ''from  Enghmd." 

1  The  preposition  is  often  separated  from  the  relative  wbicn 
It  governs  ;  as,  *' Whom  wilt  thou  give  it  to  .^"  instead  of,  **  To 
ichom  wilt  thou  give  it?"  '*  He  is  an  author  whom  I  am  much 
delighted  with  ;"  "  The  world  is  too  polite  to  shock  authors  with 
a  truth,  which  generally  their  booksellers  are  the  first  that  inform 
them  of."  This  is  an  idiom  to  which  our  language  is  strongly  in- 
clined ;  it  prevails  in  common  conversation,  and  suits  very  well 
with  the  familiar  style  in  writing:  but  the  placing  of  the  prepo- 
sition before  the  relative,  is  more  graceful,  as  well  as  more  per- 
spicuous, and  agrees  much  better  with  the  solemn  and  elevated 
style. 

2  Some  writers  separate  the  preposition  from  its  noun,  in  or 
der  to  connect  different  prepositions  with  the  same  noun:  as, 
"  To  suppose  the  zodiac  and  planets  to  be  efficient  of  and  ante- 
cedent /o,  themselves."  This,  whether  in  the  familiar  or  the  so 
lemn  style,  is  always  inelegant,  and  should  generally  be  avoided. 
In  forms  of  law,  and  the  hke,  where  fulness  and  exactnes  of  ex- 
pression must  take  place  of  every  other  consideration,  it  may  f| 
admitted. 

3  Different  relations,  and  different  senses,  must  be  expressed 
by  different  prej)ositions,  though  in  conjunction  with  the  same 
verb  or  adjective.  Thus  we  say,  "  to  converse  with  a  persoi> 
upon  a  subject,  in  a  house,  &c."  We  also  say,  "  We  are  disap* 
pointed  of  a  thing,"  when  we  cannot  get  it,  "  and  disappointed 
in  it,"  rvhen  we  have  it,  and  find  it  does  not  answer  our  expecta- 
tions, l^ut  two  different  prepositions  must  be  improper  in  the 
same  construction,  and  in  the  same  sentence  :  as,  "The  combat 
between  thirty  French  against  twenty  Englisli." 

In  some  cases,  it  is  difficult  to  say,  to  which  of  two  preposi- 
tions the  preference  is  to  be  given,  as  both  are  used  promis- 
cuously, and  custom  has  not  decided  in  favour  of  either  of  them. 
We  say,  "Expert  at,"  and  •' expert  in  a  thing."  *' Expert  at 
finding  a  remedy  for  his  mistakes  :"  "  Expert  in  deception." 

When  prepositions  are  subjoined  to  nouns,  they  are  generally 
the  same  that  are  subjoined  to  the  verbs  from  which  the  nouns 
are  derived  :  as,  "incompliance  wilh^^^  "  to  comply  tri/A ;"  •^  A 
disposition  to  tyranny,"  "  disposed  to  tyrannize." 

4  As  an  accurate  and  appropriate  use  of  the  preposition  is  of 
great  im])ortance,  we  shall  select  a  considerable  number  of  ex- 
amples of  imj)ropriety,  in  the  application  of  this  part  of  speech. 

ist,  With  respect  to  the  preposition  o/— "  He  is  resolved  of 
going  to  the  Persian  court ;"  "  07i  going,"  «fec.  *'  He  was  totally 
dependent  of  the  Papal  crown  ;"  "  on  the  Papal,"  &c.  "  To 
call  of  a  person,"  and  "  to  wait  of  him,"  "  on  a  person,"  &c. 
"  He  was  eager  of  recommending  it  to  his  fellow-citizens,"  "tn 
recommending,"  &c.  Of  is  sometimes  omitted,  and  sometimes 
inserted,  after  worthy:  as,  "It  is  worthy  observatioji/'  or,  "of 


rLi:xvri.]  SYNTAX.  133 

.hservation."  But  it  would  have  been  better  omitted  in  tlie  ful- 
inviiig  sentences.  ''The  emulation,  who  should  serve  their 
(  oimtry  best,  no  longer  subsists  among  them,  but  of  who  should 
obtain  the  most  lucrative  command."  *'  The  rain  hath  been  fall- 
ing of  n.  long  time  ;"  "  falling  a  long  time."  "  It  is  situation 
ciiiefly  which  decides  of  the  fortune  and  characters  of  men  ;" 
"  decides  the  fortune,"  or,  "  concerning  the  fortune."  *'  He  found 
the  greatest  difficulty  of  writing;"  "in  writing."  **  It  might 
have  given  me  a  greater  taste  of  its  antiquities."  A  taste  of  a 
thing  implies  actual  enjoyment  of  it  ;  but  a  taste ybr  it,  implies 
ordy  a  capacity  for  enjoyment.  "  This  had  a  much  greater  share 
of  inciting  him,  than  any  regard  after  his  father's  commands*," 
'-  share  in  inciting,"  and  "regard  to  his  father's,"  ^c. 

2d,  With  respect  to  the  prepositions  to  and /or. — "You  havfj 
!)estowed  your  favours  to  the  most  deserving  j)ersons  ;"  *'  upon 
the  most  deserving,"  &c.  "  He  accused  the  ministers  for  be- 
traying the  Dutch  :"  "0/  having  betrayed."  *'  His  abhorrence 
to  that  superstitious  figure  ;"  "q/*  that,"  &c.  "  A  great  change 
'  to  the  better  ;"  '^for  the  better."  "  Your  prejudice  to  my  cause  ;" 
'•''  against^  "  The  English  were  very  different  people  then  lo 
what  the}^  are  at  present ;"  ^\from  what,"  &c.  "  In  compliance 
to  tlie  declaration  ;"  "  mif/t,"  &c.  *'  It  is  more  than  they  thought 
for;"  "tliought  0/."  "There  is  no  need  for  it ;"  "q/*it."  For 
is  superfluous  in  the  phrase,  "  IVIore  than  he  knowsybr."  "No 
^liscouragement  for  the  authors  to  proceed;"  "^0  the  authors," 
&LQ.  "  It  v/as  perfectly  in  compliance  to  some  persons  ;"  ^^ivith.^^. 
"  The  wisest  princes  need  not  think  it  any  diminution  to  their 
greatness,  or  derogation  to  their  sufficiency,  to  rely  upon  coun- 
sel;"  "diminution  o/*,"  and  "  derogation yro/71." 

3d,  With  respect  to  the  prepositions  with  and  upon, — **  Recon- 
ciling himself  with  the  king."  "Those  things  which  have  the 
greatest  resemblance  with  each  other,  frequently  differ  the  most." 
''  That  such  rejection  should  be  consonant  with  our  common 
nature."  "  Conformable  with,"  &c.  *' The  history  of  Peter  is 
agreeable  with  the  sacred  texts."  In  all  the  above  instances,  it 
should  be,  "fo,"  instead  of  "  zrt7/i.."  "  It  is  a  use  that  perhaps 
I  should  not  have  thought  on  ;"  "  thought  q/*."  "  A  greater 
quantity  may  be  taken  from  the  heap,  without  making  any 
sensible  alteration  upon  it;"  "i?i  it."  "Intrusted  to  persons 
on  whom  the  parliament  could  confide;"  "in  whom."  "He 
was  made  much  on  at  Argos ;"  "  much  q/*."  "  If  policy  can 
prevail  upon  force  ;"  "  over  force."  "  I  do  likewise  dissent  with 
the  examiner  ;"  ^'from^' 

4th,  With  respect  to  the  prepositions  vn,  frorn,  &lc. — "They 
should  be  informed  in  some  parts  of  his  character;"  ^^  about,** 
or,  "  conccrnhigy  "  Upon  such  occasions  as  fell  into  their 
cognizance  ;"  "  under.''''  "  That  variety  of  factions  into  which 
we  are  still  engaged  ;"  "  xn  which."  **  To  restore  myself  into 
the  favour  ;"  " io  the  favour."  "Could  he  have  profited  from 
repeated  experiences  3"  *'  %-"     From  seems  to  be  saperflaoufl 


134  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR.  [Rule  xvin. 

after  forbear :  as,  •*  lie  could  not  forbear  from  appointing  i\m 
pope,"  &(;.  **  A  strict  observance  after  times  and  fashions  ;"  "  oj 
times."  "Tlie  character  which  we  may  now  value  ourselves  by 
drawing  ;"  "  upon  drawing."  "  Neither  of  them  shall  make  me 
swerve  out  of  tiie  patii ;"  ^^from  the  path."  "  Ye  blind  guides 
which  strain  at  a  gnat,  and  swallow  a  camel ;"  it  ought  to  be 
"  which  strain  out  a  gn  it,  or  take  a  gnat  out  of  the  liquor  bl 
straining  it."  The  impropriety  of  the  preposition  has  whoUj 
destroyed  the  meaning  of  the  phrase.  \ 

The  preposition  among  generally  implies  a  number  of  things 
It  cannot  be  properly  used  in  conjunction  with  the  word  ever^ 
which  is  in  the  singular  number  :  as,  *'  Which  is  found  amonJ 
every  species  of  liberty  ;"  "  The  opinion  seems  to  gain  grouni 
among  every  body." 

5  The  preposition  to  is  made  use  of  before  nouns  of  placd, 
when  they  follow  verbs  and  participles  of  motion  :  as,  "  I  went  '" 
to  London  ;"  ^' I  am  going  to  town."  But  the  preposition  at  is 
generally  used  after  the  neuter  verb  to  be :  as,  '*  1  have  been  at 
London  ;"  "  I  was  at  the  place  appointed  ;"  **  I  shall  be  at  Paris." 
We  likewise  say:  "He  touched,  arrived  at  any  place."  The 
preposition  in  is  set  before  countries,  cities,  and  large  towns  :  as, 
*'  He  lives  in  France,  in  London,  or  in  Birmingham."  But  before 
villages,  single  houses,  and  cities  which  are  in  distant  coun- 
tries, at  is  used ;  as,  "  He  hves  at  Hackney  ;"  "  He  resides  at 
Montpelier." 

It  is  a  matter  of  indifference  with  respect  to  the  pronoun  one 
another,  whether  the  preposition  of  be  placed  between  the  two 
parts  of  it,  or  before  them  both.  We  may  say,  **  They  were 
jealous  of  one  another  ;"  or,  '*  They  were  jealous  one  of  ano- 
ther;"  but  perhaps  the  former  is  better. 

Participles  are  frequently  used  as  prepositions  ;  as,  excepting, 
respecting,  touching,  concerning,  according.  **They  were  all 
in  fault  except  or  excepting  him." 

RULE  XVIII. 

Conjunctions  connect  the  same  moods  and  tenses  of 
Terbs  and  cases  of  nouns  and  pronouns :  as,  "  Candour  is 
b  he  approved  and  practised  ;"  "  If  thou  sincerely  desire, 
ind  earnestly  pursue  virtue,  she  will  assuredly  be  found  by 
ihee,  and  prove  a  rich  reward  :"  "  The  master  taught  her 
and  me  to  write  :"  **  He  and  she  were  school  fellows."* 

A  few  examples  of  inaccuracy  respecting  this  rule  may  further 
display  its  utility.  **  If  he  prefer  u  virtuous  life,  and  is  sincere 
in  his  professions,  he  will  succeed  ;"  "  if  he  prefers.^^  "  To 
deride  the  miseries  of  the  unhappy,  is  inhuman  ;  and  wanting 
compassion  towards  them,  is  unchristian  ;"  "  and  to  want  com- 
passion."    *'  The  parliament  addressed  the  king,  and  has  been 

*  This  rule  refers  only  lo  nouns  and  pronouns,  which  have  the  same  bearing 
Of  relationi  with  regard  to  other  ptiits  of  the  sentence. 


Rule  xix.]  SYNTAX.  135 

prorogued  the  same  day  •/'  **  and  zvas  prorogued."  *"^II.s  Avealtli 
and  him  bid  adieu  to  each  other;"  "and  /le."  "He  entreated 
us,  my  comrade  and  I,  to  Hve  liarmoniously  ;"  "comrade  and 
wte."  *"  My  sister  and  her  were  on  good  terms  ;"  "  and  5/ie."  "  We 
often  overlook  the  blessings  which  are  in  our  possession,  and 
are  searching  after  those  which  are  out  of  our  reach  :"  it  ought 
to  be,  "  and  starch  after." 

1  Conjunctions  are,  indeed,  frequently  made  to  connect  dif- 
ferent moods  and  tenses  of  verbs :  but  in  these  instances  the 
nominative  must  generally,  if  not  always,  be  repeated,  which  ii 
not  necessary,  though  it  may  be  done,  under  the  construction  to 
which  the  rule  refers.  We  may  say,  "  He  lives  temperately,  and 
he  should  live  temperately;"  "He  may  rehwn  ^  hnt  he  will  not 
continue  ;"  "  She  was  proud,  though  she  is  now  humble  :"  but  il 
is  obvious,  that  in  such  cases,  the  nominative  ought  to  be  re- 
peated ;  and  that,  by  this  means,  the  latter  members  of  these 
sentences  are  rendered  not  so  strictly  dependent  on  the  preceding, 
as  those  are  which  come  under  the  rule.  When,  in  the  progress 
of  a  sentence,  we  pass  from  the  affirmative  to  the  negative  form, 
or  from  the  negative  to  the  affirmative,  the  subject  or  nomina- 
tive is  always  resumed  :  as,  "  He  is  rich,  but  he  is  not  respect- 
able." "  He  is  not  rich,  but  he  is  respectable."  There  appears 
to  be,  in  general,  equal  reason  for  repeating  the  nominative,  and 
resuming  the  subject,  when  the  course  of  the  sentence  is  diverted 
by  a  change  of  the  mood  or  tense.  The  following  sentences 
may  therefore  be  improved.  "  Anger  glances  into  the  breast  of 
a  wise  man,  but  will  rest  only  in  the  bosom  of  fools  ;"  "  hut  rests 
only ;"  or,  "  but  it  will  rest  only."  "Virtue  is  praised  by  many, 
and  would  be  desired  also,  if  her  worth  were  really  known ;" 
"  and  she  would."  "  The  world  begins  to  recede,  and  will 
soon  disappear ;"  "  and  it  will."  See  the  Octavo  Grammar, 
Rule  xviii. 

RULE  XIX. 

Some  conjunctions  require  the  indicative,  some  the  sub- 
junctive mood,  after  them.  It  is  a  general  rule,  that  when 
something  contingent  or  doubtful  is  implied,  the  subjunctive 
ought  to  be  used  :  as,  *'  If  I  zv ere  to  write,  he  would  not  re- 
gard it ;"   "  He  will  not  be  pardoned,  miUss  he  repent^ 

Conjunctions  that  are  of  a  positive  and  absolute  nature 
I'equire  the  indicative  mood.  "  As  virtue  advances,  so  tice 
recedes  ;"  "  He  is  healthy,  because  he  is  temperate." 

The  conjunctions,  i/*,  though,  U7iless,  except,  tohtther,  &c.  gene- 
rally require  the  subjunctive  mood  after  them  :  as,  "  If  thou  he 
afflicted,  repine  not;"  "  Though  he  slay  me,  yet  will  I  trust  in 
him;"  "He  cannot  be  clean,  unless  he  ivash  himself;"  "No 
power,  except  it  were  given  from  above  ;"  "  Whether  it  were  I  or 
they,  so  we  preach."  But  even  these  conjunctions,  when  the 
sentence  does  not  imply  doubt,   admit  of  the  indicative :   asj 


J36  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR.  [Rule  xiy 

*  Though  he  is  poor,  he  is  rontented."— >SVe  Subjunctive  Mood 
vage  53,  and  pages  139,  140. 

The  following  example  may,  in  some  measure,  serve  to  illus- 
trate the  distinction  between  the  subjunctive  and  the  indicative 
moods.  *'  Though  he  ivere  divinely  inspired,  and  spoke  therefore 
as  the  oracles  of  God,  with  supreme  authority;  though  he  were 
endued  with  supernatural  powers,  and  could,  therefore,  have 
confirmed  the  truth  of  what  he  uttered,  by  miracles  ;  yet,  in 
compliance  with  the  way  in  which  human  nature  and  reasonable 
creatures  are  usually  wrought  upon,  he  reasoned."  That  our 
Saviour  was  divinely  inspired,  and  endued  with  supernatural 
powers,  are  positions  that  are  here  taken  for  granted,  as  not 
admitting  the  least  doubt ;  they  would  therefore  have  been  better 
expressed  in  the  indicative  mood :  "  Though  he  wjs  divinely 
inspired  ;  though  he  teas  endued  with  su{)ernatural  powers." 
The  subjunctive  is  used  in  the  like  improper  manner  in  the  follow- 
ing example  :  "  Though  he  were  a  son,  yet  learned  he  obedience, 
by  the  things  which  he  suffered."  But,  in  a  similar  passage,  the 
indicative,  with  great  propriety,  is  employed  to  the  same  j)urpose  ; 
"  Though  he  was  rich,  yet  for  your  sakes  he  became  poor." 

1  Lest,  and  that,  annexed  to  a  command  preceding,  necessa- 
rily require  the  subjunctive  mood  :  as,  ''  Love  not  sleep,  lest  thou 
com«  to  poverty ;"  "Reprove  not  a  scorner,  lest  he  hate  thee;" 
♦*  Take  heed  that  thou  speak  not  to  Jacob." 

If  with  but  following  it,  when  fiiturity  is  denoted,  requires  the 
subjunctive  mood :  as,  **  If  he  do  but  touch  the  hills,  they  shall 
smoke  ;"  "  If  he  be  but  discrete,  he  will  succeed."  But  the  indi- 
cative ought  to  be  used,  on  this  occasion,  when  future  time  is 
not  signified:  as,  "//*,  in  this  expression,  he  does  hut }est,  no  of- 
fence should  be  taken ;"  ''^  If  she  is  but  sincere,  I  am  happy." 
The  same  distinction  applies  to  the  following  forms  of  expres- 
sion :  "  If  he  do  submit,  it  will  be  from  necessity  ;"  "  Though  he 
does  submit,  he  is  not  convinced  ;"  "  If  thou  do  not  reward  this 
service,  he  will  be  discouraged  ;"  "  If  thou  dost  heartily  forgive 
him,  endeavour  to  forget  the  offence." 

2  In  the  following  instances,  the  conjunction  that,  expressed 
or  understood,  seems  to  be  improperly  accom[)anied  with  the 
subjunctive  mood.  '*  So  much  she  dreaded  his  tyranny,  that  the 
fate  of  her  friend  she  dare  not  lament."  "  He  reasoned  so  artfully 
that  his  friends  would  listen,  and  think  [that]  he  z/;ere  not  wrong." 

3  The  same  conjunction  governing  both  the  indicative  and  the 
subjunctive  moods,  in  the  same  sentence,  and  in  the  same  cir- 
cumstances, seems  to  be  a  great  impropriety  :  as  in  these  in- 
stances. "  If  there  be  but  one  body  of  legislators,  it  is  no  better 
than  a  tyranny ;  if  there  are  only  two,  there  will  want  a  casting 
voice."  "  //*  a  m^n  have  a  hundred  slieep,  and  one  of  them  is 
gone  astray,"  &c. 

4  Almost  all  the  irregularities,  in  the  construction  of  any  lan- 
guage, have  arisen  from  the  ellipsis  of  some  v  ords,  which  were 
originally  inserted  in  the  sentence,  and  made  it  regular ;  and  it 


RuLK  XIX  SYNTAX.  137 

U  probablcj  that  this  lias  generally  been  the  case  with  respect  to 
tl»e  conjunctive  form  of  worths,  now  in  use ;  wltich  will  appear 
from  the  following  examples :  "  We  .shall  overtake  him  though 
he  run  ;"  that  is,  "though  he  should  run  ;"  "Unless  he  act  pru- 
dently, he  will  not  accomplish  his  purpose  ;"  that  is,  "unless  he 
shall  act  prudently."  "  If  he  succeed  and  obtain  his  end,  he  will 
not  be  the  happier  for  it ;"  that  is,  "  If  he  should  succeed  and 
should  obtain  his  end."  These  remarks  and  examples  are  design- 
ed to  show  the  original  of  many  of  our  present  conjunctive 
forms  of  expression  ;  and  to  enable  the  student  to  examine  the 
propriety  of  using  them,  by  tracing  the  words  in  question  to  their 
proper  origin  and  ancient  (connexions.  Uut  it  is  necessary  to  be 
more  particular  on  this  subject,  and  therefore  we  shall  add  a  few 
observations  respecting  it. 

That  part  of  the  verb  which  grammarians  call  the  present 
tense  of  the  subjunctive  mood,  has  a  future  signification. 
This  is  effected  by  varying  the  terminations  of  the  second  and 
third  persons  singular  of  the  indicative  ;  as  will  be  evident  from 
the  following  examjdes:  "  If  thou  prosper,  thou  shouldst  be 
thankful;"  "Unless  he  study  more  closely,  he  will  never  be 
learned."  Some  writers  however,  would  express  these  senti- 
ments w^ithout  those  variations  ;  "  If  thou  prosperest,^^  &c.  "Un- 
less he  studies,'^  &c. :  and  as  there  is  great  diversity  of  practice 
in  this  point,  it  is  proper  to  offer  the  learners  a  few  remarks,  to 
assist  them  in  distinguishing  the  right  apphcation  of  these  diffei- 
ent  forms  of  expression.  It  may  be  considered  as  a  rule,  that 
the  changes  of  termination  are  necessary,  when  these  two  cir- 
cumstances concur  :  1st,  When  the  subject  is  of  a  dubious  and 
contingent  nature  ;  and  2d,  When  the  verb  has  a  reference  to 
future  time.  In  the  following  sentences,  both  these  circum- 
stances will  be  found  to  unite :  "  If  thou  injure  another,  thoa 
wilt  hurt  thyself ;"  "  He  has  a  hard  heart ;  and  if  he  continue 
impenitent,  he  must  suffer ;"  "  He  will  maintain  bis  principles, 
though  he  lose  his  estate  ;"  "  Whether  he  succeed  or  not,  his  in- 
tention is  laudable  ;"  "  If  he  he  not  prosperous,  he  will  not  re- 
pine;" "  If  a  man  smite  his  servant,  and  he  rfie,"  &c.  Exod.  xxi. 
5(J0.  In  all  these  examples,  the  things  signified  by  the  verbs  are 
uncertain,  and  refer  to  future  time.  But  in  the  instances  which 
follow,  future  time  is  not  referred  to ;  and  therefore  a  different  con- 
struction takes  place  ;  "  If  thou  livest  virtuously,  thou  art  happy  ;" 
*'  Unless  he  means  what  he  says,  he  is  doubly  faithless  ;"  "  If  he 
allows  the  excellence  of  virtue,  he  does  not  regard  her  precepts ;" 
** Though  he  seems  to  be  simple  and  artless,  he  has  deceived  us;" 
'*  Whether  virtue  is  better  than  rank  or  wealth,  admits  not  of  any 
dispute;"  **  If  thou  hdievest  with  all  thy  heart,  thou  mayst,"  &c. 
•^cts  viii.  37. — There  are  many  sentences,  introduced  by  con- 
junctions, in  which  neither  contingency  nor  futurity  is  denoted ; 
BtS,  "  Though  he  excels  her  in  knowledge,  she  far  exceeds  him  in 
virtue."  **  I  have  no  doubt  of  his  principles :  but  if  he  helieveg 
th»  truths  of  religion,  he  does  not  act  according  to  them." 

M2 


138  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR.  [Rcle  xix. 

That  both  the  circumstances  of  contingency  and  futurity  are 
necessary,  as  tests  of  the  propriety  of  ahering  the  terminations, 
will  be  evident,  by  inspecting  the  following  examples;  which 
show  that  there  are  instances  in  v/hich  neither  of  the  circum- 
stances alone  implies  the  other.  In  the  three  examples  foUow- 
mg,  contingency  is  denoted,  but  not  futurity.  "  If  he  thinks  as 
ne  speaks,  he  may  safely  be  trusted."  "  If  he  is  now  disposed  to 
It,  I  will  perform  the  operation."  '^  He  acts  uprightly,  unless  lie 
aeceives  me."  In  the  following  sentences,  futurity  is  signifirid. 
but  not  contingency.  "As  soon  as  the  sun  sets,  it  will  he 
cooler."  "As  the  autumn  advances^  these  birds  will  gradually 
emigrate." 

It  appears,  from  the  tenor  of  the  examples  adduced,  that  the 
rules  above  mentioned  may  be  extended  to  assert,  that  in  cases 
wherein  contingency  and  futurity  do  not  concur,  it  is  not  proper 
to  turn  the  verb  from  its  signification  of  present  time,  nor  to  vary 
its  form  or  termination.  The  verb  would  then  be  in  the  indica 
live  mood,  whatever  conjunctions  might  attend  it. — If  these 
rules,  which  seem  to  form  the  true  distinction  between  the  sub 
junctive  and  the  indicative  moods  in  this  tense,  were  adopted 
and  established  in  practice,  we  should  have,  on  this  point,  a  prin- 
ciple of  decision  simple  and  precise,  and  readily  applicable  to 
every  case  that  might  occur. — It  wi41,  doubtless,  sometimes  hap- 
pen, that,  on  this  occasion,  as  well  as  on  many  other  occasions, 
a  strict  adherence  to  grammatical  rules  would  render  the  lan- 
guage stiff  and  formal  :  but  when  cases  of  this  sort  occur,  it  is 
better  to  give  the  expression  a  different  turn,  than  to  violate 
grammar  for  the  sake  of  ease,  or  even  of  elegance.  See  Rule  14. 
JVote  2. 

5  On  the  formof  the  auxiliaries  in  the  compound  tenses  of  the 
subjunctive  mood,  it  seems  proper  to  make  a  few  observations. 
Some  writers  express  themselves  in  the  perfect  tense  as  follows  : 
"If  thou /lave  determined,  we  must  submit:"  "Unless  he  have 
coJisented,  the  writing  will  be  void :"  but  we  believe  that  few 
authors  of  critical  sagacity  write  in  this  manner.  The  proper 
form  seems  to  be,  "  If  thou  hast  determined  ;  unless  he  has  con- 
sented," &c.  conformably  to  what  we  generally  meet  with  in  the 
Bible  :  **  I  have  surnamed  thee,  though  thou  hast  not  known  me." 
Isaiah  xlv.  4,  5.  "  What  is  the  hope  of  the  hypocrite,  though  he 
hath  gained,"  &c.  Job  xxvii.  8.     See  also  J3cts  xxviii.  4. 

6  In  the  pluperfect  and  future  tenses,  we  sometimes  meet  with 
such  expressions  as  these  ;  "  If  thou  had  applied  thyself  diligent- 
ly, thou  wouldst  have  reaped  the  advantage  ;"  "Unless  thou  shall 
speak  the  whole  truth,  we  cannot  determine;"  "If  thou  it'i7/  un- 
dertake the  business,  there  is  httle  doubt  of  success."  This  mode 
of  expressing  the  auxiliaries  does  not  appear  to  be  warranted  by 
the  general  practice  of  correct  writers.  They  should  be  hadsty 
shalty  and  wilt,  and  we  find  them  used  in  this  form,  in  the  sacred 
Scriptures. 

"  If  thou  hadst  known,"  &c.  Luke  xix.  47.  "  If  thou  hadst  been 


LE  XIX.]  SYNTAX.  139 

iiere,"  &c.  John  xi.  21.     "  If  thou  wilt^  thou  canst  make  me 
clean,"  Matt,  viii.  2.     See  also,  2  Sam.  ii.  27.  Matt  xvii.  4. 

7  The  second  person  singular  of  the  imperfect  tense  in  the 
subjunctive  mood,  is  also  very  frequently  varied  in  its  termina- 
tion: as,  "If  thou  loved  him  truly,  thou  wouldst  obey  him;'* 
*'Tijong}i  thou  rfit/' conform,  thou  hast  gained  nothing  by  it." 
This  variation,  however,  apj)ears  to  be  improper.  Our  present 
version  of  the  Scriptures,  which  we  again  refer  to,  as  a  good 
grammatical  authority  in  ])oints  of  this  nature,  decides  against 
it.  *'  If  thou  knewtst  the  gift,"  &c.  John  iv.  10.  **  If  thou  didst 
receive  it,  why  dost  thou  glory  ?"  &c.  1  Cor.  iv.  7,  See  also 
Dan.  V.  22.  But  it  is  proper  to  remark,  that  the  form  of  the 
verb  to  be,  when  used  subjunctively  in  the  imperfect  tense,  is  in- 
deed very  considerably  and  properly  varied  from  that  which  it 
}ias  in  the  imperfect  of  the  indicative  mood  :  as  the  learner  will 
perceive  by  turning  to  the  conjugation  of  that  verb. 

8  It  may  not  be  superfluous,  also  to  observe,  that  the  aux- 
iliaries of  the  potential  mood,  when  applied  to  the  subjunctive, 
do  not  change  the  termination  of  the  second  person  singular. 
We  properly  say,  "  If  thou  mayst  or  canst  go  ;"  "  Though  thou 
mighist  live;"  "Unless  thou  couldst  read;"  "If  thou  wouldst 
learn  ;"  and  not  '*  If  thou  may  or  can  go,"  &c.  It  is  sufficient, 
on  this  point,  to  adduce  the  authorities  of  Johnson  and  Lowth  ; 
*'  If  thou  shouldst  go  ;"  Johnson.  "  If  thou  mayst,  mighist,  or 
couldst  love  ;"  Lowth.  Some  authors  think,  that  when  that  ex- 
presses the  motive  or  end,  the  termination  of  these  auxiliaries 
should  be  varied:  as,  "Iadvi.se  thee,  f/taA  thou  may  beware;" 
"  He  checked  thee,  that  thou  should  not  presume :"  but  there 
does  not  appear  to  be  any  ground  for  this  exception.  If  the 
expression  of  "  condition,  doubt,  contingency,"  <fec.  does  not 
warrant  a  change  in  the  form  of  these  auxiliaries,  why  should 
they  have  it,  when  a  motive  or  end  is  expressed  r  The  translators 
of  the  Scriptures  do  not  appear  to  have  made  the  distinction 
contended  for.  "  Thou  buildest  the  wall,  that  thou  mayst  be 
their  king,"  JsTeh.  vi.  6.  "  There  is  forgiveness  with  thee,  that 
thou  mayst  be  feared."  Psalm  cxxx.  4. 

From  the  preceding  observations  under  this  rule,  it  appears, 
that  with  respect  to  what  is  termed  the  present  tense  of  any 
verb,  when  the  circumstances  of  contingency  and  futurity  concur, 
it  is  proper  to  vary  the  terminations  of  the  second  and  third 
persons  singular  ;  that  without  the  concurrence  of  those  circum- 
stances, the  terminations  should  not  be  altered  ;  and  that  the 
verb  and  the  auxiliaries  of  the  three  past  tenses,  and  the  aux- 
iliaries of  the  first  future,  undergo  no  alterations  whatever: 
except  the  imperfect  of  the  verb  to  he,  which,  in  cases  denotmg 
contingency,  is  varied  in  all  the  persons  of  the  singular  number. 
See  }jap;e  64.     The  JVote. 

After  perusing  what  has  been  advanced  on  this  subject,  :t  will 
be  natural  for  the  student  to  inquire,  what  is  the  extent  ol  vtt 
eubjunctive  mood  ?     Some  gr«immarie3i5  thkik  it  'sxl'sri.^i  Pi  * 


143  ENGLISH  GRAMx^IAR.  [Rule  xinr. 

to  v/Iiat  is  called  the  present  tense  of  verbs  generally,  under  tlie  * 
circumstances  of  contingency  and  futurity  ;  and  to  tlie  imperfect 
tense  of  the  verb  to  be,  when  it  denotes  contingency,  &c. :  be- 
cause in  these  tenses  only,  the  form  of  the  verb  admits  of  varia- 
tion;  and  they  suppose  that  it  is  variation  merely  wbich  con- 
stitutes the  distinction  of  moods.  It  is  the  opinion  of  other 
grammarians,  (in  wliich  opinion  we  concur,)  that,  besides  the 
two  cases  just  mentioned,  all  verbs  in  the  three  past,  and  the 
two  future  tenses,  are  i-n  the  subjunctive  mood,  when  they  de- 
note contingency  or  uncertainty,  though  they  have  not  any 
change  of  termination  ;  and  that,  wiien  contingency  is  not 
signified,  the  verb,  through  all  these  five  tenses,  belongs  to  the 
indicative  mood,  whatever  conjunction  may  attend  it.  They  , 
think,  that  the  definition  and  nature  of  the  subjunctive  mood,  j 
have  no  reference  to  change  of  termination,  but  that  they  refer 
merely  to  the  manner  of  the  being,  action,  or  passion,  signified 
by  the  verb  ;  and  that  the  subjunctive  mood  may  as  properly 
exist  without  a  variation  of  the  verb,  as  the  infinitive  mood, 
which  has  no  termination^  diflerent  from  those  of  the  indicative. 
The  decision  of  this  point  may  not,  by  some  grammarians,  be 
thought  of  much  consequence.  But  the  rules  which  ascertain 
the  propriety  of  varying,  or  not  varying,  the  terminations  of  the 
verb,  will  certainly  be  deemed  important.  These  rules  may  be 
well  observed,  without  a  uniformity  of  sentiment  respecting  the 
nature  and  hmits  of  the  subjunctive  mood.  For  further  remarks 
on  the  subject,  see  pages  57,  59 — 61,  72 — 74,  77 — 78.* 

9  Some  conjunctions  have  correspondent  conjunctions  belong- 
ing to  them,  either  expressed  or  understood :  as, 

1st,  Though, — yet,  nevertheless  :  as,  *'  Though  he  was  rich,  yet 
for  our  sakes  he  became  poor."  "  Though  powerful,  he  was 
meek." 

2d,  Whether — or :  as,  "  Whether  he  will  go  or  not,  I  cannot  tell." 
3d,  Either— or :  as,  "I  will  either  send  it,  or  bring  it  myself" 
4th,  JVeither- — 7ior :  as,  ^^JVeither  he  nor  I  am  able  to  compass  it." 

*  We  have  stated,  for  the  ■student's  information,  the  different  opinions  of 
grammarians,  respecting  the  English  Subjunctive  Mood  :  First,  that  which  sup- 
poses there  is  no  such  mood  in  our  language  ;  Secondly^  that  which  extends 
It  no  farther  than  the  variations  of  the  verb  extend ;  Thirdly,  that  which  we 
have  adopted,  and  explained  at  large ;  and  which,  in  general,  corresponds  with 
the  views  of  the  most  approved  writers  on  English  Grammar.  We  may  add  a 
Fourth  opinion;  which  appears  to  possess,  at  least,  much  plausibility.  This 
opinion  admits  the  arrangement  we  have  given,  with  one  variation,  namely, 
that  of  assigning  to  the  first  tense  of  the  subjunctive,  two  forms:  1st,  that 
which  simply  denotes  contingency  :  as,  "  If  he"  desires  it,  I  will  perform  the 
operation  :"  that  is,  "  If  he  noiy  desires  it ;"  2dly,  that  which  denotes  both  con- 
tingency and  futurity;  as,  "  If  he  desire  it,  I  will  perform  the  operation;"  that 
is," "  If  he  should  hereafter  desire  it."  This  last  theory  of  the  subjunctive  mood, 
claims  the  merit  of  rendering  the  whole  system  of  the  moods  consistent  and 
jregular;  of  being  more  conformable  than  any  other,  to  the  definition  oi"  the 
fiubiunctive;  and  of  not  referring  to  the  indicative  mood  forms  of  expression, 
winch  ill  accord  with  its  simplicity  and  nature.  Perhaps  this  theory  wiU  bear 
a  ftUrict  examination. 


LKxix.l  SYNTAX.  Hi 

5th,  As — as:  expressing  a  comparison  of  equality  :  as,  "She 
*-  as  arniuble  as  her  sister;  and  as  much  respected." 

(Uli,  ./^^ — so:  expressing  a  comparison  of  equahty :  as,  ^^Jls 
ti\e  stars,  so  shall  thy  seed  be." 

7  th,  .4s — so  :  expressing  a  comparison  of  quality :  as,  "^s  the 
oiie  dieth,  so  dietli  the  other."     ^'j]s  he  reads,  they  read." 

8.:h,  So — as:  vvith  a  verb  expressing  a  comparison  of  quality: 
as,  "  To  see  tliy  gh)ry,  so  as  I  have  seen  thee  in  the  sanctuary." 

IJth,  So— as:  with  a  negative  and  an  adjective  expressing  a 
'Comparison  of  quantity  !  as,  "  Pompey  was  not  so  great  a  generc^ 
Gs  Caesar,  nor  so  great  a  man." 

10th,  So — thai:  expressing  a  consequence:  as,."  He  was  so 
fatigued,  thai  he  could  scarcely  move." 

The  conjunctions  or  and  nor  may  often  be  used,  with  nearly 
equal  propriety.  "The king,  whose  character  was  not  sufficiently 
vigorous,  nor  decisive,  assented  to  the  measure."  in  this  sen- 
tence, or  would  perha[)s  have  been  better:  but,  in  general,  nor 
seems  to  repeat  the  negation  in  the  former  part  of  the  sentence, 
and  therefore  gives  more  emphasis  to  the  expression, 

10  Conjunctions  are  often  improperly  used,  both  singly  and  in 
pairs.  The  following  are  examples  of  this  impropriety.  "The 
relations  are  so  uncertain,  as  that  they  require  a  great  deal  of 
examination:"  it  should  be,  " if /lai  they  require,"' &^.  "There 
was  no  man  so  sanguine,  who  did  not  apprehend  some  ill  conse- 
quences:" it  ought  to  be,  "so  sanguine  as  not  to  apprehend," 
&c.  ;  or,  "no  man,  how  sanguine  soever,  who  did  not,"  &c. 
"To  trust  in  him  is  no  more  but  to  acknowledge  his  power." 
'^  This  is  no  other  but  the  gate  of  paradise."  In  both  these 
instances,  hut  should  be  than,  "  We  should  sufficiently  weigh 
the  objects  of  our  hope  ;  whether  they  are  such  as  we  may  rea- 
.eonably  expect  from  them  what  they  propose,'  &c.  It  ought 
to  be,  "  that  we  may  reasonably,"  &c.  '*  The  dune  'liad  not 
behaved  with  that  loyalty  as  he  ought  to  have  done;"  ^Uvitk 
which  he  ought."  "  In  the  order  as  they  lie  in  his  preface:"  it 
should  be,  "in  order  as  they  lie;"  or,  "in  the  order  in  which  they 
lie."  "Such  sharp  replies  that  cost  him  his  life;"  "a^  cost 
him  "  &c.  "  If  he  were  truly  that  scarecrow,  as  he  is  now  com- 
monly painted  ;"  ''^  such  a  scarecroAv,"  &c.  "I  wish  I  could  do 
that  justice  to  his  memory,  to  oblige  the  painters,"  &c. ;  "  do 
/wc/i  justice  as  to  oblige,"  &c. 


There  is  a  peculiar  neatness  in  a  sentence  beginning  with  the 
conjunctive  form  of  a  verb.  "  Were  there  no  difference,  thers 
would  be  no  choice." 

A  double  conjunctive,  in  two  correspondent  clauses  of  a  sen- 
tence, is  sometimes  made  use  of:  as,  ^^ had  he  done  this,  he  had 
escaped  ;"  "  Had  the  limitations  ou  the  prerogative  been,  in  his 
tin)P.,  quite  fixed  and  certain,  his  integrity  had  made  him  regard 
as  sacred,  the  boundaries  of  the  constitution."  The  sentence  in 
the  common  form  would  have  read  thus :  "  If  the  limitations  ou 


1 


149  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR.  [Rule  xx 

the  prerogative  had  been,  iScc.  his  integrity  would  have  made 
hirn  regard,"  &c. 

The  particle  as,  when  it  is  connected  with  the  pronoun  such, 
nas  the  force  of  a  relative  pronoun  :  as,  "  Let  such  tis  presume 
to  advise  others,  look  well  to  their  own  conduct ;"  which  is 
equivalent  to,  "  Let  them  who  presume,"  &c.  But  when  used 
by  itself,  this  particle  is  to  be  considered  as  a  conjunction,  oi 
perhaps  as  an  adverb.     See  the  Key. 

Our  language  wants  a  conjunction  adapted  to  familiar  style, 
equivalent  to  notwithstanding.  The  words  for  all  that^  «eem  to 
be  too  low.  "The  word  was  in  the  moiuh  of  every  one,  Dut,  for 
all  that,  the  subject  may  still  be  a  secret." 

In  regard  thai  is  solemn  and  antiquated  ;  because  would  do 
much  better  in  the  following  sentence.  "  It  cannot  be  other 
wise,  m  regard  that  the  French  prosody  differs  from  that  of  every 
other  language." 

The  word  except  is  far  preferable  to  other  than,  "It  admitted 
of  n©  effectual  cure  other  than  amputation."  Except  is  also  to 
be  preferred  to  all  but.     "  They  were  happy  all  but  the  stranger." 

In  the  two  following  phrases,  the  conjunction  as  is  improperly 
omitted ;  "  Which  nobody  presumes,  or  is  so  sanguine  a  to  hope." 
*'  I  must,  however,  be  so  just  a  to  own." 

The  conjunction  that  is  often  properly  omitted,  and  under- 
stood ;  as,  "I  beg  you  would  come  to  me ;"  '.'  See  thou  do  it  not ;" 
instead  of  "that  you  would,"  "that  thou  do."  But  in  the  fol- 
lowing and  many  similar  phrases,  this  conjunction  were  much 
better  inserted :  "  Yet  it  is  reason  the  memory  of  their  virtues 
remain  to  posterity."  It  should  be,  "yet  it  is  just  that  the  me- 
mory," 6&c. 

RULE   XX. 

When  the  qualities  of  difTerent  things  are  compared,  the 
latter  noun  or  pronoun  is  not  governed  by  the  conj unction 
than  or  as,  but  agrees  with  the  verb,  or  is  governed  by  the 
verb  or  the  preposition,  expressed  or  understood:  as,  "  'J'hou 
art  wiser  than  I ;"  that  is,  "  than  I  am."  "  They  loved  him 
more  than  me  ;"  i.e.  "  more  than  they  loved  me."  "  The 
sentiment  is  well  expressed  by  Plato,  but  much  better  by 
Solomon  than  him ;"  that  is,  "  than  by  him."* 

The  propriety  or  impropriety  of  many  phrases,  in  the  preced- 
ing as  well  as  in  some  other  forms,  may  be  discovered,  by  sup- 
plying the  words  that  are  not  expressed  ;  which  will  be  evident 
from  the  following  instances  of  erroneous  construction.  *^  He 
can  read  better  than  me."  "  He  is  as  good  as  her."  *'  Whe 
tlier  I  be  present  or  no."  "  Who  did  this  ?  Me."  By  supplying 
the  words  understood  in  each  of  these  phrases,  their  impropriety 
and  governing  rule  will  appear  :  as,  "Better  than  I  can  read  ;" 
**As  good  as  she  is  ;"  *^ Present  or  not  present;"  "  I  did  it." 

*  See  the  Tenth,  or  any  subsequent  edition,  of  the  Key ;  Rule  xx.  The  Note* 


Rule  :fxi  ]  SYNTAX.  J43 

1  By  not  attc-iding  to  this  rule,  many  errors  have  been  com- 
miJ  .ed  :  a  number  of  which  is  subjoined,  as  a  further  caution 
Qiid  direction  to  the  learner.  "  Thou  art  a  much  greater  loser 
than  me  by  his  death."  '*  She  suffers  hourly  more  than  me.*' 
"  We  contributed  a  third  more  than  the  Dutch,  who  were 
obliged  to  the  same  proportion  more  than  us."  "  King  Charles, 
and  more  than  him,  the  duke  and  the  poi)ish  faction,  were  at  li 
Derty  to  form  new  schemes."  "  The  drift  of  all  his  sermons  was, 
to  prepare  the  Jews  for  the  reception  of  a  prophet  mightier  than 
him,  and  whose  shoes  he  was  not  worthy  to  bear."  *'  It  was  not 
the  work  of  so  eminent  an.  author,  as  him  to  whom  it  was  first 
nnputed."  "  A  stone  is  heavy,  and  the  sand  weighty  ;  but  a 
fool's  wrath  is  heavier  than  them  both."  '*  If  the  king  give  us 
'eave,  we  may  perform  the  office  as  well  as  them  that  do."  In 
these  passages  it  ouglit  to  be,  '*  /,  we,  he,  they,  respectively." 

When  the  relative  ivko  immediately  follows  than,  it  seems  to 
form  an  exception  to  the  20th  rule  ;  for  in  that  connexion,  the  re- 
lative must  be  in  the  objective  case  ;  as,  "Alfred,  than  whom,  a 
greater  king  never  reigned,"  &c.  '*  Beelzebub,  than  whom,  Satan 
excepted,  none  higher  sat,"  &o.  It  is  remarkable  that  in  such 
instances,  if  the  personal  pronoun  were  used,  it  would  be  in  the 
nominative  case  ;  as,  "A  greater  king  never  reigned  than  he;'** 
that  is,  ^^thari  he  was.''^  ''Beelzebub,  than  /ie,"  «&sc. ;  that  is, 
**  than  he  sat.''  The  phrase  than  whom,  is,  however,  avoided  by 
the  best  modern  writers. 

RULE  XXI. 
To  avoid  disagreeable  repetitions,  and  to  express  our 
ideas  in  few  words,  an  ellipsis,  or  omission  of  some  words, 
is  frequently  admitted.  Instead  of  saying,  ''  He  was  a  learn- 
ed man,  he  was  a  wise  man,  and  he  was  a  good  man,"  we 
make  use  of  the  ellipsis,  and  say,  "  He  was  a  learned,  wise, 
and  good  man." 

When  the  omission  of  words  would  obscure  the  sentence, 
weaken  its  force,  or  be  attended  with  an  impropriety,  they 
must  be  expressed.  In  the  sentence,  "  We  are  apt  to  love 
who  love  us,"  the  word  them  should  be  supplied.  "  A  beau- 
tiful field  and  trees,"  is  not  proper  language.  It  should  be, 
"Beautiful  fields  and  trees;"  or,  "  A  beautiful  field  and 
fine  trees." 

Almost  all  compounded  sentences  are  more  or  less  elhptical; 
some  examples  of  which  may  be  seen  jander  the  different  parts 
of  speech. 

1  The  ellipsis  of  the  article  is  thus  used ;  "  A  man,  woman, 
and  child:"  that  is,  *'  a  man,  a  woman,  and  a  child."   **  A  house 
and  garden  ;"  that  is,  "a  house  and  a  garden."    "  The  sun  and  ' 
moon  ;"  that  is,  '*  the  sun  and  the  moon."  "The  day  and  hour  ;'• 
that  is,  "  the  day  and  the  hour."     In  all  these  instances,  the  ar- 


1 


M4  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR.  [Rulexx? 

iicle  being  once  expressed,  the  repetition  of  it  becomes  unneces- 
sary. There  is,  however,  an  excej)tion  to  this  observation,  wlieu 
some  pecuUar  emphasis  requires  a  re})erition  ;  as  in  the  foilovvin,/ 
sentence.  "Not  only  the  year,  but  the  day  and  the  hour."  la 
this  case,  the  ellipsis  of  the  last  article  would  be  imj)roper. 
When  a  different  form  of  the  article  is  requisite,  the  article  ia 
also  properly  repeated  :  as,  ''a  house  and  an  orchard  ;"  instead 
of,  *'  a  house  and  orchard." 

2  The  noini  is  frequently  omitted  in  the  following   manner. 
*  The  laws  of  God  and  man  ;"  that  is,  "the  laws  of  God  and  th': 
'aws  of  man."    In  some  very  emphatical  expressions,  the  ellip^ 
should  not  be  used  :  as,  "Christ  the  ])ower  of  God,  and  the  wi> 
dom  of  God  ;"   which  is  more  emphatical  than,  "  Christ  the 
power  and  wisdom  of  God." 

3  The  ellipsis  of  the  adjective  is  used  in  the  following  manner. 
"A  delightful  garden  and  orchard  ;"  that  is,  "  a  delightful  gar- 
den and  a  delightful  orchard;"  "A  little  man  and  woman  ;"  thai 
is,  "A  little  man  and  a  little  woman."  In  such  elliptical  expres-  j 
sions  as  these,  the  adjective  ought  to  have  exactly  the  same  sig- 
nification, and  to  be  quite  as  proper,  when  joined  to  the  latter  | 
substantive  as  to  the  former ;  otherwise  the  ellipsis  should  nf>» 
be  admitted. 

Sometimes  the  ellipsis  is  improperly  applied  to  nouns  of  di; 
ferent  numbers  :    as,  "  A  magnificent  house  rjid  gardens."     In  I 
this  case  it  is  better  to  use  another  adjective  ;  as,  "  A  magnificent  1 
house  and  fine  gardens." 

4  The  following  is  the  ellipsis  of  the  pronoun.  "  I  love  an(i 
fear  him;"  that  is,  "  I  love  him,  and  I  fear  him."  "  My  house 
and  lands;"  that  is,  "  my  house  and  my  lands."  In  these  in-« 
stances  the  ellipsis  may  take  place  with  propriety  ;  but  if  we 
would  be  more  express  and  emphatical,  it  must  not  be  used:  as, 
"  His  friends  and  his  foes  ;"  "  3Iy  sons  and  my  daughters." 

In  some  of  the  common  forms  of  speech,  the  relative  pronoun 
is  usually  omitted  :  as,  "This  is  the  man  they  love  ;"  instead  of,  , 
"This  is  the  man  lohom  they  love."    "  These  are  the  goods  they  > 
bought ;"  for,  "These  are  the  goods  tvhich  they  l)ought." 

In  complex  sentences,  it  is  much  better  to  have  the  relative 
pronoun  expressed  :  as  it  is  more  profier  to  say,  "  The  posture  in 
which  I  lay,"  than,  "  In  the  posture  I  lay:"  "The  horse  oil 
which  I  rode,  fell  down  ;"  than  "  The  horse  I  rode  fell  down." 

The  antecedent  and  the  relative  connect  the  parts  of  a  sentence 
together,  and,  to  prevent  obscurity  and  confusion,  shoidd  answer 
lo  each  other  with  great  exactness.     "  We  sj)eak  that  we  do  I 
know,  and  testify  that  vPe  have  seen."     Here  the  ellipsis  is  mani-  ! 
festly  improper,  and  ought  to  be  supplied :  as,  "  We  speak  that 
which  we  <lo  know,  and  testify  that  ivhich  we  have  seen." 

5  The  ellipsis  of  the  verb  is  used  in  the  following  instances.   I 
"  The  man  was  old  and  crafty;"  that  is,  "The  man  was  old,  and   ' 
the  man  was  crafty."  "  She  was  youijg,  and  beautiful,  and  good  ;'' 
that  is,  "She  was  young,  she  was  beautiful,  and  she  was  good.'* 


RuLK  XXI.]  SYNTAX.  145 

"  Thou  art  poor,  and  wretched,  and  miserable,  and  blind,  aKd  na- 
ked." If  we  woidd  fill  up  the  ellipsis  in  the  last  sentence,  tJioit 
art  ought  to  be  repeated  before  each  of  the  adjectives. 

If,  in  such  enumeration,  we  choose  to  point  out  one  property 
above  the  rest,  that  property  nmst  be  placed  last,  and  the  ellip 
SIS  supplied :  as,  "She  is  young  and  beautiful,  and  she  is  good." 

"  I  went  to  see  and  hear  him ;"  that  is,  *'  I  went  to  see  and  I 
went  to  hear  him."  In  this  instance*  there  is  not  only  an  ellipsis 
of  the  governing  verb  I  went,  but  likewise  of  the  sign  of  the  in- 
finitive mood,  which  is  governed  by  it. 

jOo,  didj  have,  had,  shall,  will,  may,  might,  and  the  rest  of  the 
auxiharies  of  the  compound  tenses,  are  frequently  used  alone,  to 
spare  the  repetition  of  the  verb:  as,  "He  regards  his  word,  but 
thou  dost  not :"  i.  e.  "  dost  not  regard  it."  "  We  succeeded,  but 
they  did  not ;"  "  did  not  succeed."  "  I  have  learned  my  task,  but 
thou  hast  not ;"  ''  hast  not  learned."  *'  They  must,  and  they  shall 
be  punished  ;"  that  is,  "  They  must  be  punished."    See  the  Key. 

6  TJ]e  elhpsis  of  the  adverb  is  used  in  the  following  manner. 
"He  spoke  and  acted  wisely.;"  that  is,  "He  spoke  wisely,  and 
he  acted  wisely."  '*  Thrice  T  went  and  offered  my  service  ;"  that 
18,  *' Thrice  I  went,  and  thrice  1  offered  my  service." 

7  The  ellipsis  of  the  preposition,  as  well  as  of  the  verb,  is  seen 
in  the  following  instances:  *'  He  went  into  the  abbeys,  halls,  and 
public  buildings;",  that  is,  'Mie  went  into  the  abbeys,  he  went 
into  the  halls,  and  he  went  into  the  pubhc  buildings."  "He  also 
went  through  all  the  streets  and  lanes  of  the  city ;"  that  is, 
"  Through  all  the  streets,  and  through  all  the  lanes,"  &c.  "  He 
epoke  to  every  man  and  woman  there,"  that  is,  "  to  every  man 
and  to  every  woman."  "  This  day,  next  month,  last  year ;" 
that  is,  "  on  this  day,  in  the  next  month,  in  the  last  year  ;"  **The 
Lord  do  that  which  seemeth  him  good  ;"  that  is,  "  which  seem 
eth  to  him." 

8  The  ellipsis  of  the  conjunction  is  as  follows:  "They  confess 
the  power,  wisdom,  goodness,  and  love,  of  their  Creator  ;"  i.  e. 
"the  power,  and  wisdom,  and  goodness,  and  love  of,"  &c. 
"Though  I  love  him,  I  do  not  flatter  him,"  that  is,  "Though  I 
love  him,  yet  I  do  not  flatter  him." 

9  The  ellipsis  of  the  in^erjech'on  is  not  very  common;  it,  how- 
ever, is  sometimes  used :  as,  "  Oh !  pity  and  shame !"  that  is, 
"Oh  pity  !  Oh  shame  1" 

As  the  ellipsis  occurs  in  almost  every  sentence  in  the  English 
language,  numerous  examples  of  it  might  be  given  ;  but  only  a 
few  more  can  be  admitted  here. 

In  the  following  instance  there  is  a  very  considerable  one : 
"He  will  often  argue,  that  if  this  pa*  of  our  trade  were' well 
cultivated,  we  should  gain  from  one  nation  ;  and  if  another, 
from  another ;"  that  is,  "  He  w  jU  often  argue,  that  if  this  part  of 
our  tr*.Je  were  well  cultivated,  we  should  gain  from  one  nation, 
and  if  another  part  of  our  trade  were  well  cultivated,  we  should 
gain  from  another  nation." 

N 


140  ENGLISH  GRAMMAll  [VivLx  xi  ' 

The  following  instances,  though  short,  contain  much  of  the  ef 
ipsis  :  "  Wo  is  me  ;"  i.  e.  "  wo  is  to  me."     "To  let  blood;"  i.  e 

to  let  out  blood."  "  To  let  down  ;"  i.  e.  "  to  let  it  fall  or 
slide  down."  "  To  walk  a  mile  ;"  i.  e.  "  to  walk  through  the 
space  of  a  mile."  "  To  sleep  all  night ;"  i.  e.  "  To  sleep  through 
all  the  night."  "  To  go  a  fishing  ;"  "  To  go  a  hunting  :"  i.  e.  "  ti 
go  on  a  fishing  voyage  or  business  ;"  "to  go  on  a  hunting  party.*' 
"I  dine  at  two  o'clock;"  i.'e.  "  at  two  of  the  clock."  "By  sea, 
by  land,  on  shore :"  i.  e.  "  By  the  sea,  by  the  land,  on  the  shore." 

10  The  examples  that  follow  are  produced  to  show  the  im- 
propriety of  ellipsis  in  some  particular  cases.  "  The  land  was 
always  possessed,  during  pleasure,  by  those  intrusted  with  the 
command;"  it  should  be,  ^'  those  persons  intrusted  ;"  or,  "  those 
who  were  intrusted."  "  If  he  had  read  further,  he  would  have 
found  several  of  his  objectipns  might  have  been  spared:"  that  >s, 
"  he  Avould  have  found  that  several  of  his  objections,"  &c. 
"  There  is  nothing  men  are  more  deficient  in,  than  knowing 
their  own  characters."  It  ought  to  be,  "  nothing  in  which  men  ;" 
and,  "than  in  knowing."  "  I  scarcely  know  any  part  of  na- 
tural philosophy  would  yield  more  variety  and  use  ;"  it  should 
be,  "  ivhich  would  yield,"  &c.  "  In  the  temper  of  mind  he  was 
then  ;"  i.  e.  "  in  which  he  then  was."  "The  little  satisfaction  and 
consistency,  to  be  found  in  most  of  the  systems  of  divinity  I  have 
met  with,  made  me  betake  myself  to  the  sole  reading  of  the 
Scriptures  :"  it  ought  to  be,  "  which  are  to  be  found,"  and  ^^  which 
I  have  met  with."  ,  "  He  desired  they  might  go  to  the  altar  to- 
gether, and  jointly  return  their  thanks  to  whom  only  they  were 
due  ;"  i.  e.  "  to  him  to  whom,"  &c. 

RULE  XXIL 

All  the  parts  of  a  sentence  should  correspond  to  each 
other  :  a  regular  and  dependent  construction,  throughout, 
should  he  carefully  preserved.  The  follow^ing  sentence  is 
therefore  inaccurate  :  **  He  was  more  heloved,  but  not  so 
much  admired,  as  Cinthio,"  It  should  be,  "  He  was  more 
beloved  than  Cinthio,  but  not  so  much  admired." 

Th6  firi?t  example  under  this  rule,  presents  a  most  irregular 
construction,  namely,  "  He  was  more  beloved  as  Cinthio."  The 
words  more  and  so  much,  are  very  improperly  stated  as  having 
the  same  regimen.  In  correcting  such  sentences,  it  is  not  ne- 
cessary to  supply  the  latter  ellipsis  ;  because  it  cannot  lead  to 
any  discordant  or  improper  construction,  and  the  supply  would 
often  be  harsh  or  inelegant.     See  p.  141. 

As' the  22d  Rule  comptihends  all  the  preceding  rules,  it  may 
at  the  first  view,  appear-  to  be  too  general  to  be  useful.  But  b^ 
ranginir  under  it  a  numb'^r  of  se'itences  peculiarly  constr»-:cted 
^ve  shall  perceive,  that  it  is  calculated  to  ascertain  the  true  gram 
matical  construction  of  many  modes  of  expression,  which  noxie 
of  the  particular  rules  can  sufficiently  explain. 


Rule  xxii.J  SYNTAX.  147 

"  This  dedication  may  serve  for  almost  any  book,  that  lm«,  is 
or  sliall  be  published."  It  ought  to  be,  '*  that  has  been,  (ft  shall 
be  published."  *'  He  was  guided  by  interests  always  diiftrent, 
sometimes  contrary  to,  those  of  the  community;"  ** different 
from  ;"  or,  "  always  different  from  those  of  the  community,  and 
sometimes  contrary  to  tliem."  "Willit  be  urged  that  those 
books  are  as  old,  or  even  older  than  tradition  .^"  The  words,  "as 
old,"  and  "older,"  cannot  have  a  common  regimen;  it  should 
be  **  as  old  as  tradition,  or  even  older."  "  It  requires  few  tal«nts 
to  which,  most  men  are  not  born,  or  at  least  may  not  acquire  ;" 
"  or  which,  at  least  they  may  not  acquire."  "  The  court  of  chan- 
cery frequently  mitigates  and  breaks  the  teeth  of  the  common 
law."  In  this  construction,  the  first  verb  is  said,  "to  mitigate 
the  teeth  of  the  common  law,"  which  is  an  evident  solecism. 
"  Mitigates  the  common  law,  and  breaks  the  teeth  of  it,"  would 
have  been  grammatical. 

"They  presently  grow  into  good  humour,  and  good  language 
towards  the  crown  ;"  "grow  into  good  language,"  is  very  im- 
proper, "  There  is  never  wanting  a  set  of  evil  instruments,  who 
either  out  of  mad  zeal,  private  hatred,  or  filthy  lucre,  are  always 
ready,"  &c.  We  say  properly,  "A  man  acts  out  of  mad  zeal," 
or,  "out  of  private  hatred;"  but  we  cannot  say,  if  we  would 
speak  English.  "  he  acts  out  of  filthy  lucre."  "  To  double  her 
kindness  and  caresses  of  me  ;"  the  word  "kindness"  requires  to 
be  followed  by  either  to  or/o?*,  and  cannot  be  construed  with  the 
prd^)osition  of.  "Never  was  man  so  teased,  or  suffered  half  the 
uneasiness,  as  I  have  done  this  evening  :"  the  first  and  third 
clauses,  viz.  "  Never  was  man  so  teased,  as  I  have  do^ie  this 
evening.'*  cannot  be  joined  without  an  impropriety  ;  and  to  con- 
nect the  second  and  third,  the  word  that  must  be  substituted  for 
as;  "Or  suffered  half  the  uneasiness  that  I  have  done;"  or 
else,  "  half  so  much  uneasiness  as  I  have  suffered." 

The  first  part  of  the  following  sentence  abounds  with  adverbs, 
and  tnose  such  as  are  hardly  consistent  with  one  another:  "  How 
much  soever  the  reformation  of  this  degenerate  age  is  almost  ut- 
ttrly  to  be  despaired  of,  we  may  yet  have  a  more  comtbrtable 
prospect  of  future  times."  The  sentence  would  be  more  correct 
in  the  following  form  :  "  Though  the  reformation  of  this  degene 
rate  age  is  nearly  to  be  despaired  of,"  &c. 

"Oh  !  shut  not  up  my  soul  with  the  sinners,  nor  my  life  with 
the  blood-thirsty ;  in  whose  hands  is  wickedness,  and  their  right- 
hand  is  full  of  gifts."  As  the  passage,  introduced  by  the  copula- 
tive conjunction  and,  was  not  intended  as  a  continuation  of  ne 
principal  and  independent  part  of  the  sentence,  but  of  the  Je- 
pendent  part,  the  relative  lohose  shoul4have  been  used  instead 
of  the  possessive  their ;  viz.  "  and  whose  right-hand  is  full  of  gifts." 

"  Eye  hath  not  seen,  nor  ear  heard,  neither  have  entered  into 
the  heart  of  man,  the  things  which  God  hath  prepared  for  them 
that  love  him."  There  seems  to  be  an  impropriety  in  this  in- 
ft^nc^,  jn  which  the  same  noun  serves  in  a  double  capacity,  per- 


148  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 

forming  at  the  same  time  the  offices  belh  of  tlie  nominative  ami 
objeftive  cases.  "  Neither  hath  it  entered  into  the  heart  of  man, 
to  conceive  the  things,"  &c.  would  Jjave  been  regular. 

"We  have  the  power  of  retaining,  altering,  afid  compounding 
those  images  which  wc  liave  once  received,  into  all  the  varieties 
of  picture  and  vision."  It  is  very  proper  to  say,  "  altering  and 
compounding  those  images  which  we  have  once  received,  into 
all  the  varieties  of  picture  and  vision  ;"  but  we  can  with  no  pro 
pwety  say,  "  retaining  them  into  all  the  varieties  ;"  and  yet,  ac 
cording  to  the  manner  in  which  the  words  are  ranged,  this  con- 
struction is  unavoidable:  for  *' retaining,  altering,,  and  com- 
pounding," are  participles,  each  M"  which  equally  refers  to,  and 
governs  the  subsequent  noun,  those  images ;  and  that  noun 
again  is  necessarily  connected  with  the  following  preposition, 
into.  The  construction  might  easily  have  been  rectified,  by  dis- 
joining the  p^rJ.ic'ple  retaining  from  the  other  two  participles,  in 
this  way  :  '"  We  have  the  poAver  of  retaining  those  images  which 
we  have  once  received^  and  of  altering  and  compounding  them 
into  all  the  varieties  of  picture  and  vision  ;"  or,  perhaps,  better 
thus:  '*  We  have  the  power  of  retaining,  altering,  and  compound- 
ing those  images  which  we  have  once  received,  and  of  forming 
them  into  all  the  varieties  of  picture  and  vision.^* 

IjyTERJECTlON. 

For  the  syntax  of  the  Inteijection,  see  Rule  v.  Note  11,  page 
106,  and  Note  9,  of  Rule  xxi. 

DIRECTIONS  FOR  PARSING. 

As  we  have  finished  the  explan-it-or  of  the  ditTerent  parts  ol 
speech,  and  the  rules  for  forming  th<^ip  into  sentences,  it  is  now 
proper  to  give  some  examples  of  the  ti7anner  in  which  the  learn- 
ers should  be  exercised,  in  order  to  prove  their  knowlt»dge,  and 
to  render  it  familiar  to  them.  This  is  called  parsing.  The  iia 
ture  of  the  subject,  as  well  as  the  adaptation  of  it  to  learner.* 
requires  that  it  should  be  divided  into  two  parts  ;  viz.  parsini^,  a^ 
it  respects  etymology  alone  ;  and  parsing,  as  it  respects  boti» 
etymology  and  syntax.* 

SECTION  I.     Specimens  of  Etymological  Parsing, 
'•Virtue  ennobles  us." 

Virtue  is  a  common  substantive,  of  the  neuter  gender, 
third  person,  the  singular  number,  and  in  tlie  nominative  case 
Decline  the  noun.)  Ennohles  is  a  regular  verb  active,  indicative 
mood,  present  tense,  and  the  third  person  singular.  ^  [Repeat  the 
present  tense,  the  imperfect  tense,  and  the  perfect  participle.])  Us 
is  a  personal  pronoun,  of  the  first  person  plural,  and  in  the 
objective  case.     [Decline  it,) 

»  See  the  **  General  Directions  for  using  the  English  Exercises,"  prefixed  to 
the  eighth  and  every  subsequent  edition  of  that  book. 

The  learner  should  occasionally  repeat  all  the  moods  and  tenifes  o!  the  verb. 


I 


SYNTAX  149 

"  Goodness  will  be  rewarded."  ^ 

Goodness  is  a  common  substantive,  of  the  ne-iiter  gender,  the 
t!iird  person,  the  singular  number,  and  in  the  nominative  case 
{Decline  it.)  IVill  he  reivarded  is  a  regular  verb,  in  the  passive 
voice,  the  indicative  mood,  the  first  future  tense,  and  the  third 
person  singular.  (Repeat  the  present  tense j  the  imperfect  tense,  and 
the  perfect  participle.) 

"  Strive  to  improve." 

Slnve  is  an  irregular  verb  neuter,  in  the  imperative  mood,  and 
of  the  second  person  singular.  [Repeat  the  present  te^se^  ^c, 
To  improve  is  a  regular  verb  neuter,  and  in  the  infinitive  mood 
[Repeat  the  present  tcnse^  ^*c.) 

"  Time  fijes,  O  !  how  swiftly." 

Time  is  a  common  substantive,  of  the  neuter  gender,  the  third 
person,  the  singular  number,  and  in  the  nominative  case.  (i>e- 
cline  the  noun.)  Flies  is  an  irregular  verb  neuter,  the  indicative 
mood,  present  tense,  and  the  third  person  singular.  (Repeat  the 
present  tense^  fyc.)  01  is  an  interjection.  How  and  siviftly  are 
a<iverbs. 

"Gratitude  is  a  delightful  emotion." 

Gratiinde  is  a  common  substantive,  of  the  neuter  gender,  the 
tlnrd  person,  the  singular  number,  and  in  the  nominative  case. 
^Decline  it.)  Is  is  an  irregular  verb  neuter,  indicative  mood, 
present  tense,  and  the  third  person  singular.  (Repeat  the  presem 
tensCj  Sfc.)  A  is  the  indefinite  article.  Delightful  is  an  adjective 
in  the  positive  state.  (Repeat  the  degrees  of  comparison.)  Emo- 
tion is  a  common  substantive  of  the  neuter  gender,  the  third  per- 
8011,  the  singular  number,  and  in  the  nominative  case.  (Decline  it.\ 
**They  who  forgive  act  nobly." 

They'is  a  personal  pronoun,  of  the  third  person,  the  plural 
anmiber,  and  in  the  nominative  case.  (Decline  it.)  Who  is  a 
relative  pronoun,  and  the  nominative  case.  (Decline  it.)  Forgive 
13  an  irregular  verb  active,  indicative  mood,  present  tense,  and 
the  third  person  plural.  (Repeat  the  present  tense,  ^'c.)  Act  is  a 
regular  verb  active,  indicative  mood,  present  tense,  and  the  third 
person  plural.  (i2e/?eaf,^c.)  JVb6/t/ is  an  adverb  of  quality.  (Re- 
peat the  degrees  of  comparison.) 

"  By  living  temperately,  our  health  is  promoted." 

By  is  a  preposition.  Living  is  the  present  participle  of  the 
regular  neuter  verb  "  to  live."  (Repeat  the  participles.)  Tempe- 
ratdy  \s  SLU  adverb  of  quality.  Onr  is  an  adjective  pronoun  of 
the  possessive  kind.  (Decline  it.)  Health  is  a  (!ommon  sub- 
stantive, of  the  third  person,  the  singular  number,  and  in  the 
nominative  case.  (Decline  it.)  Is  promoted  is  a  regular  ver!^ 
passive,  indicative  mood,  present  tense,  and  the  third  persaa 
singular.     (Repeat,  ^-c.) 

"  We  should  be  kind  to  them,  who  are  unkind  to  us." 

}Fe  is  a  personal  pronoun,  of  the  first  person,  the  plural  nurn 
her,  and  in  the  nominative  case.     (Decline  it?}     Shoxdd  be  is  jj; 

N2 


150  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 

irregular  verb  neuter,  in  the  potential  mood,  the  imperfect  tense, 
and  the  first  person  plural.     {Repeat  the  present  tense,  ^-c.)    Kinei 
is  an  adjective,  in  the  positive  state.     {Repeat  the  degrees  of  com- 
parison.)     To  ,is  a  preposition.     Then  is  a  personal  pronoun,  of 
the  third  person,  the  plural  number,  and  in  the  objective  case, 
(Decline  it.)     Who  is  a  relative  pronoun,  and  in  the  nominative 
case.     {Decline  it,)     Are  is  an  irregular  verb  neuter,  indicative, 
mood,  present  tense,  and  the  third  person  plural.     {Repeat,  Ifc. 
Unkind  is  an  adjective  in  the  positive  state.     [Repeat  the  degrets  \ 
of  comparison.)     To  is  a  preposition.     Us  is  a  personal  pronoun,  I 
of  the  first  person,  the  plural  number,  and  in  the  objective  case. 
(Decline  it.) 

SECTION  II.     Specimens  of  Syntactical  Parsing. 
*'  Vice  produces  misery.'"' 

Vice  is  a  common  substantive,  of  the  neuter  gender,  the  third 
person,  the  singular  number,  and  in  tne  nominative  case.  Pro- 
duces is  a  regular  verb  active,  indicative  mood,  present  tense, 
the  third  person  singular,  agreeing  with  its  nominative  **  vict,'^ 
according  to  Rule  i.  which  says  ;  {here  repeat  the  rule.)  Misery 
is  a  common  substantive,  of  the  neuter  gender,  the  third  person, 
the  singular  number,  and  the  objective  caj*e,  governe<l  by  e 
active  verb  **  produces,"  according  to  Rule  xi.  which  says,  &- 
**  Peace  and  joy  are  virtue's  crown.*' 

Peace  is  a  common  substantive.  {Repeat  the  gender,  person^ 
number,  and  case.)  And  is  a  copulative  conjunction.  Joy  i«  «-i 
common  substantive.  (Repeat  the  person,  number,  and  case.)  Art 
IS  an  irregular  verb  neuter,  indicative  mood,  present  tense,  and 
the  third  person  plural,  agreeing  with  the  nominative  case 
"  peace  and  joy,"  according  to  Rule  ji.  which  says  ;  (here  repeat  ' 
the  rule.)  Virtue*s  is  a  common  substantive,  of  the  third  person, 
the  singular  number,  and  in  the  possessive  case,  governed  by 
the  substantive  "  crown,"  agreeably  to  Rule  x.  which  says,  &c. 
Crown  is  a  common  substantive,  of  the  neuter  gender,  the  third 
person,  the  singular  number,  and  in  the  nominative  case,  agree- 
ably to  the  fourth  note  of  Rule  xi. 

"  Wisdom  or  folly  governs  us." 

Wisdom  is  a  common  substantive.  (  Repeat  the  gender, person, 
numher,  and  case.  Or  is  a  disjunctive  conjunction.  Folly  is  a 
common  substantive.  (Repeat  the  person,  number,  and  case.) 
Governs  is  a  regular  verb  active,  indicative  mood,  present  tense, 
and  the  third  person  singular,  agreeing  wuh  its  nominative  case, 
"  wisdom"  or  " folly,"  according  to  rule  iii.  which  says,  &c. 
Us  is  a  personal  pronoun,  of  the  first  person,  plural  number,  and 
in  the  objective  case,  governed  by  the  active  verb  "  governs," 
agreeably  to  rule  xr.  which  says,  &c. 

*' Every  heart  knows  its  sorrows." 

Every  is  an  adjective  pronou.'i  of  the  distributive  kind,  agree- 
ing with  its  substantive  "  heart,"  according  to  Note  2  under  rulb 
vui.  which  says,  x^c.     Heart  is  a  common  substantive.    (Rf. 


SYNTAX.  151 

j}€at  the  gender,  person,  number,  and  case.)  Knows  is  au  irregular 
verb  active,  indicative  mood,  present  tense,  third  person  singu 
lar,  agreeing  with  its  nominative  case  "  heart,"  according  *.n 
RULE  I.  which  says,  &c.  Its  is  a  personal  pronoun,  of  the  thirj 
person  singular,  and  of  tlie  neuter  gender,  to  agree  with  its  sub- 
stantive "heart,"  according  to  rule  v.  which  says,  &c.  it  is  in 
the  possessive  case,  governed  by  the  noun  "sorrows,"  according 
to  RULE  X.  which  says,  &c.  Soitows  is  a  common  substantive, 
of  the  third  person,  the  plural  number,  and  the  objective  case, 
governed  by  the  active  verb  "  knows,"  according  to  Rule  xi 
which  says^  &c. 

'*  The  man  is  happy  who  lives  wisely." 
The  is  the  definite  article.  Man  is  a  common  substantive 
(Repeat  the  per  son,  number,  and  case.)  Is  is  an  irregular  verb  neu 
ter,  indicative  mood,  present  tense,  and  the  third  person  singular, 
agreeing  with  the  nominative  case  "  man,"  according  to  Rule  i 
which  says,  &c.  Happy  is  an  adjective  in  the  positive  state. 
Who  is  a  relative  pronoun,  which  has  for  its  antecedent,  *'  man," 
with  vvhich  it  agrees  in  gender  and  ndmber,  according  to  Rule 

V.  which  gays,  &c.  lAves  is  a  regular  verb  neuter,  indicative 
mood,  present  tense,  third  person  singular,  agreeing  with  its  no- 
minative "  who,"  according  to  Rule  vi.  which  says,  &c.  Wisely  is 
an  adverb  of  quality,  placed  after  the  verb,  according  to  Rule  xv 

"  Who  preserves  us  ?" 
Who  is  a  relative  pronoun  of  tlie  iiiierrogative  kind,  and  in 
the  nominative  case  singular.  The  word  to  which  it  relates,  (its 
subsequent,)  is  the  noun  or  pronoun  containing  the  answer  to 
the  question  ;  agreeably  to  a  note  under  Rule  vi.  Preserves  is  a 
regular  verb  active,  indicative  mood,  present  tense,  third  person 
fiingidar,  agreeing  with  its  nominative  "  who,"  according  to  Rule 

VI.  which  says,  &c.  Us  is  a  personal  prortouu.  {Repeat  the  per- 
son,nnmber,  case,  and  rule.) 

"  Whose  house  is  that  ?  My  brother's  and  mine.  Who  inhabit 
it?  We." 

Whose  is  a  relative  pronoun  of  the  interrogative  kind,  and  re- 
lates to  the  following  words,  ''  Brother's"  and  "  mine,"  agreeably 
to  a  note  under  Rule  vi.  It  is  in  the  possessive  case,  governed 
by  "  house,"  according  to  Rule  x.  which  says,  &c.  House  is  a 
coirunon  substantive,  {Repeat  the  gender, person,  number,  and  case. ; 
Is  is  an  irregular  verb  neuter,  indicative  mood,  present  tense, 
and  the  third  person  singular,  agreeing  with  its  nominative  case 
'  house,"  according  to  Rule  i.  which  says,  &c.  That  is  an  ad 
jective  pronoun  of  the  demonstrative  kind.  My  is  an  adjective 
pronoun  of  the  possessive  kind.  Bi'other^s  is  a  common  substan 
live,  of  the  third  person,  the  singular  number,  and  in  the  posses- 
sive case,  governed  by  "house"  understood,  according  to  Rule 
X.  and  a  note  under  Rule  vi.  And  is  a  copulative  conjunction. 
Mine  is  a  personal  pronoun,  of  the  first  person,  the  siugular  num- 
ber, and  in  the  possessive  case,  according  to  a  note  under  Ruin 


152  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR 

X.  and  another  under  Rale  vi.  Who  is  a  relative  pronoun  of  the 
interrogative  kind,  of  the  plural  number,  in  the  nominative  case, 
and  relates  to  "  we"  following,  accordi?ig  to  a  note  under  Rule 
VI.  Inhabit  is  a  regular  verb  active.  (Repeat  the  mood^  tense, 
person,  &c.)  It  is  a  personal  pronoun,  of  the  third  person,  the 
singular  number,  and  in  the  objective  case,  governed  by  the  ac- 
tive verb  "inhabit,"  according  to  Rule  xi.  which  says,  &c.  We 
is  a  personal  pronoun,  of  the  first  person,  the  plural  number,  and 
the  nominative  case  to  the  verb  "  inhabit"  understood.  The 
words  "  inhabit  it"  are  implied  after  "  we,"  agreeably  to  a  note 
under  Rule  vi. 

"  Remember  to  assist  the  distressed." 

Remember  is  a  regular  verb  active,  imperative  mood,  the  se- 
cond person  singular,  and  agrees  with  its  nominative  case  "  thou" 
understood.  To  assist  is  a  regular  verb  active,  in  the  infini- 
tive niood,  governed  by  the  preceding  verb  "remember,"  ac- 
cording to  Rule  XII.  which  says,  &c.  The  is  the  definite  arti 
cle.  Digressed  is  an  adjective  put  substantively. 
"  We  are  not  unemployed." 

JVe  is  a  personal  pronoun.  (Repeat  the  person,  number^  and 
case,)  Are  ig  an  irregular  verb  neuter.  (Repeat  the  mood,  tense, 
person,  &c.)  JVot  isan  adverb  of  negation.  Unemployed  ta  an 
adjective  in  the  positive  state.  The  two  negatives  not  and  mm, 
form  an  affirmative,  agreeably  to  Rule  xvi.  which  says,  &c. 

*'  This  bounty  has  relieved  you  and  us  ;  and  has  gratified  tlie 
donor." 

This  is  an  adjective  pronoun  of  the  demonstrative  kind.  Boun- 
ty is  a  common  substantive.  (Repeat  the  person^  number,  and 
case.)  Has  relieved  is  a  regular  verb  active,  indicative  mood, 
perfect  tense,  third  person  singular,  agreeing  with  its  nominative 
"bounty,"  according  to  Rule  1.  which  says,  &c.  You  is  a  per- 
sonal pronoun,  of  the  second  person  plural,  and  in  the  objective 
case.  (Repeat  the  government  and  rule.)  And  is  a  copulative 
conjunction.  Us  is  a  personal  pronoun,  in  the  objective  case. 
You  and  us  are  put  in  the  same  case,  according  to  Rule  xvin. 
which  says,  &c.  And  is  a  copulative  conjmiction.  Has  grati- 
fied is  a  regular  verb  active,  indicative  mood,  perfect  tense,  and 
third  person  singular,  agreeing  with  its  nominative  "  bounty" 
understood.  "  Has  relieved,^''  and  "  has  gratified,'''*  are  in  the  same 
mood  and  tense,  according  to  Rule  xvni.  which  says.  &c.  The 
is  the  definite  article.  Donor  is  a  common  substantive,  of  the 
third  person,  the  singular  number,  and  the  objective  case,  go  _^ 
verned  by  the  active  verb  "  has  gratified,"  according  to  Rule  x 
which  says,  &c.  See  the  Octavo  Grammar,  on  Gender. 
"  He  will  not  be  pardoned,  unless  he  repent." 

He  is  a  personal  pronoun,  of  the  third  person,  singular  number, 
masculine  gender,  and  in  the  nominative  case.  Will  be  pardoned 
is  a  regular  passive  verb,  indicative  mood,  first  future  tense,  aiirl 
the  third  person  singular,  agreeing  with  its  ruminative  **h^,** 


SYNTAX.  153 

Recording  to  Rule  i.  and  composed  of  the  auxiliaries  '*  will  be," 
and  the  perfect  participle  "  pardoned."  A^oi  is  a  negative  adverb. 
Unless  is  a  dir«junctive  conjunction.  He  is  a  {)ersonal  ])ronoun. 
{Repeat  the  person^  number,  gender,  and  case.)  Repent  is  a  regular 
verb  neuter,  in  the  subjunctive  mood,  the  present  tense,  the  third 
person  singuhir,  and  agrees  with  its  nominative  case  "  he,"  ac- 
cording to  Rule  I.  which  says,  &:c.  It  is  in  the  subjunctive  mood, 
because  it  implies  a  future  sense,  and  denotes  uncertainty  signi- 
fied by  the  conjunction  "ui>less,"  agreeably  to  Rule  xix.  and 
the  notes. 

"  Good  works  being  neglected,  devotion  is  false." 

Good  ivo7'fcs  heinfr  neglected,  Ijeing  independent  of  the  rest  ot 
the  sentence,  is  the  case  absolute,  according  to  the  fifth  note  of 
Rule  I.  Devotion  is  a  common  substantive,  [Repeat  the  number, 
verson,  and  case,)  Is  is  an  irregular  verb  neuter.  (Repeat  the 
mood,  tense,  person,  ^c.)  False  is  an  adjective  in  the  positive 
state,  and  belongs  to  its  substantive  "  devotion"  understood, 
agreeably  to  Rule  viii.  which  says,  &c. 

*'The  emperor,  Marcus  Aurelius,  was  a  wise  and  virtuous 
prince." 

The  is  the  definite  article.  Emperor  is  a  common  substantive, 
of  the  masculine  gender,  the  third  person,  the  singular  number, 
and  in  the  nominative  case.  Marcus  Aurelius  is  a  propet*  name 
or  substantive,  and  in  the  nominative  case,  because  it  is  put  in 
apposition  with  the  substantive  "  e«nperor,"  agreeably  to  the 
first  note  of  Rule  x.  Was  is  an  irregular  verb  neuter,  indicative 
mood,  imperfect  tense,  and  the  third  person  singular,  agreeing 
with  its  nominative  case  "  emperor."  A  is  the  indefinite  article. 
Wise  is  an  adjective,  and  belongs  to  its  substantive  *'  prince." 
And  is  a  copulative  conjunction.  ^  Virtuous  is  an  adjective,  and 
belongs,  &c.  Prince  is  a  common  substantive,  and  in  the  nomina- 
tive case,  agreeably  to  the  fourth  note  of  Rule  xi. 
*'To  err  is  human." 

To  err,  is  the  infinitive  mood,  and  the  nominative  case  to  the 
verb  "  is."  Is  is  an  irregular  verb  neuter,  indicative  mood,  present 
tense,  and  the  third  person  singular,  agreeing  with  its  nomi- 
native case  "  to  err,"  agreeably  to  Note  i.  under  Rule  the  first. 
Huvian  is  an  adjective,  and  belongs  to  its  substantive  "nature" 
understood,  according  to  Rule  viii.  which  says,  &c. 

"  To  countenance  persons  who  are   guilty  of  bad  actionSj  rs 
scarcely  one  remove  from  actually  committing  them." 

To  countenance  persons  who  are  guilLy  of  bad  actions,  is  part  of 
a  sentence,  which  is  the  nominative  case  to  the  verb  "is."  Is 
is  aairregular  verb  neuter,  &c.  agreeing  with  the  aforementioned 
part  of  a  sentence,  as  its  nominative  case,  agreeably  to  Note  i. 
under  Rule  the  first.  Scarcely  is  an  adverb.  One  is  a  numeral 
adjective  agreeing  with  its  substantive  "  remove."  Remove  is 
a  common  substantive,  of  the  neuter  gender,  the  third  person, 
the  singular  number,  and  in  the  nominative  ca.se,  agreeably  to 


I 


154  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 

the  fourth  note  of  Rule  xi.  From  is  a  preposition.  Committing 
IS  the  present  participle  of  the  regular  active  verb  "  to  commit.'' 
Them  is  a  personal  pronoun,  of  the  third  person,  the  plural 
number,  and  in  the  objective  case,  governed  by  the  parliciplo 
"  committing,''  agreeably  to  Rule  xiv.  which  says,  ^c.  ~ 

**  Let  me  proceed." 

This  sentence,  according  to  the  statement  of  grammarians  in" 
genertil,  is  in  the  im|)erative  mood,  of  the  first  person,  and  the 
singular  number.  The  sentence  may,  however,  be  analyzed  in 
the  following  manner.  Let  is  an  irregular  verb  active,  in  the 
imperative  mood,  of  the  second  person,  the  plural  number,  and 
agrees  witli  its  nominative  case  "you"  understood  i*  as,  *'  do  you 
let,"  Me  is  a  personal  pronoun,  of  the  first  person,  the  singular 
number,  and  in  the  objective  case,  governed  by  the  active  verb 
*•  let,"  agreeably  to  Rule  xi.  which  says,  &c.  Proceed  is  a  regu- 
lar verb  neuter,  in  the  infinitive  mood,  governed  by  the  preceding 
verb  *'let,"  according  to  Rule  xii.  which  says,  &c. 

'*  Living  expensively  and  luxuriously  destroys  health.  By 
living  frugally  and  temperately,  health  is  preserved." 

Living  expensively  and  luxuriously,  is  the  nominative  case  to 
the  verb  **  destroys,"  agreeably  to  Note  i.  under  Rule  i.  Living 
frugally  and  temperately,  is  a  substantive  phrase  in  the  objective 
case,  governed  by  the  preposition  "  by,"  according  to  Note  ii,  un- 
der Rule  XIV. 

The  preceding  specimei^  of  parsing,  if  carefully  studied  by 
the  lecirner,  seem  to  be  sufliciently  explicit,  to  enable  him  to 
comprehend  the  nature  of  this  employment;  and  sufficiently  di- 
versified, to  qualify  him,  in  other  exercises,  to  point  out  and 
epj>ly  the  remaining  rules,  both  principal  end  subordinate. 


PART  IV. 

rRosonr. 

Prosody  consists  of  two  parts  :  the  former  teaches  the 
true  PRONUNCIATION  of  words,  comprising  accent,  quan- 
tity, EMPHASIS,  PAUSE,  and  TONE  ;  and  the  latter;  the  laws 

of  VERSIFICATION. 


CHAPTER  1. 
OF  PROJSTUJ^CMTIOjY. 


SECTION  I.  Of  .Accent. 
Accent  is  the  laying  of  a  peculiar  stress  of  the  voice, 
on  a  certain  letter  or  syllable  in  a  word,  that  it  may  be 
better  heard  than  the  rest,  or  distinguished  from  them  *  as^ 


Accent.]  PROSODY.  155 

in  the  word  presume,  the  stress  of  the  voice  must  be  on  the 
letter  ti,  and  second  syllable,  sume,  which  take  the  accent 

As  words  may  be  formed  of  a  different  number  of  syllables, 
from  one  to  eight  or  nine,  it  was  necessary  to  have  some  peculiar 
mark  to  distinguish  words  froiri  mere  syllables  ;  otherwise 
speech  would  be  only  a  continued  succession  of  syllables,  with- 
out conveying  ideas;  for,  as  words  are  the  marks  of  ideas,  any 
confusion  in  the  marks,  must  cause  the  same  in  the  ideas  for 
which  they  stand.  It  was  therefore  necessary,  that  the  mind 
should  at  once  perceive  what  number  of  syllables  belongs  to 
each  word,  in  utterance.  This  might  be  done  by  a  perceptible 
pause  at  the  end  of  each  word  in  sj)eaking,  as  we  form  a  certain 
distance  between  them  in  writing  and  printing.  But  this  woukl 
make  discourse  extremel}'^  ted.'ous ;  and  though  it  might  rendei 
words  distinct,  would  make  the  meaning  of  sentences  confused 
Syllables  might  also  be  sufficiently  distinguished  by  a  certair 
<;Ievation  or  dei;ression  of  voice  upon  one  syllable  of  each  word 
which  was  the  practice  of  some  nations.  But  the  English  tongue 
has,  for  this  purpose,  adopted  a  mark  of  the  easiest  and  simples! 
kind,  which  is  called  accent,  and  which  effectually  answers  tht 
iMid. 

Every  word  in  our  language,  of  more  than  one  syllable,  has 
one  of  them  distinguished  from  the  rest  in  this  manner ;  and 
some  writers  assert,  that  every  monosyllable  of  two  or  more  let- 
ters, has  one  of  its  letters  thus  distinguished. 

Accent  is  either  principal  or  secondary.  The  priiicipal  accent 
IS  that  which  necessarily  distinguishes  one  syllable  in  a  word 
from  the  rest.  The  secondary  accent  is  that  stress  which  we 
may  occasionally  place  upon  another  syllable,  besides  that  which 
htis  the  principal  accent ;  in  order  to  pronounce  every  part  of 
the  word  more  distinctly,  forcibly,  and  harmoniously:  thus, 
"Complaisant,  caravan,"  and  "  violin,"  have  frequently  an  accent 
on  the  first  as  well  as  on  the  last  syllable,  though  a  somewhat 
less  forcible  one.  The  same  may  be  observed  of  "Repartee,  re- 
feree, privateer,  domineer,"  6cc.  But  it  must  be  observed,  that 
though  an  accent  is  allowed  on  the  first  syllable  of  these  words, 
it  is  by  no  means  necessary ;  they  may  all  be  pronounced  with 
one  accent,  and  that  on  the  last  syllable,  without  the  least  devia- 
lion  from  propriety. 

As  emphasis  evidently  points  out  the  most  significant  word  in 
a  sentence  ;  so,  where  other  reasons  do  not  forbid,  the  accent  al- 
ways dwells  with  greatest  force  on  that  part  of  the  word  which, 
from  its  importance,  the  hearer  has  always  the  greatest  occasion 
to  observe  :  and  this  is  necessarily  the  root  or  body  of  the  word. 
But  as  harmony  of  termination  frequently  attracts  the  accent 
from  the  root  to  the  branches  of  words,  so  the  first  and  most  na- 
tural law  of  accentuation  seems  to  operate  less  in  fixing  the 
stress  than  any  other.  Our  own  Saxon  terminations,  indeed, 
with  perfect  uniformity,  leave  the  principal  part  of  the  word  in 


156  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR.  Sdct.  i 

quiet  possession  of  what  seems  its  lawful  property ;  but  Latiti 
and  Greek  terminations,  of  wiiith  our  language  is  full,  assume  a 
right  of  preserving  their  original  accent,  and  subject  almost  every 
word  they  bestow  upon  us  to  then*  own  classical  laws. 

Accent,  therefore,  seems  to  be  regulated  in  a  great  measure 
]>y  etymology.  In  words  from  the  Saxon,  the  accent  is  general- 
ly on  the  root ;  in  words  from  ilie  learned  languages,  it  is  gene- 
rally on  the  termination ;  and  if  to  these  we  add  the  different 
jiccent  we  lay  on  some  words,  to  distinguish  theai  from  others, 
we  seem  to  have  the  three  great  principles  of  accentuation.; 
namely,  the  radical,  the  terminalional,  and  the  distinctive.  The 
radical:  as, ''Love,  lovely,  loveliness;"  the  terminational ;  as, 
*'  Harmony,  harmonious ;"  the  distinctive :  as,  *'  Convert,  to 
convert." 

Acctnt  on  Dissyllahles. 

Words  of  two  syllables  have  necessarily  one  of  them  accented, 
and  but  one.  It  is  true,  for  the  sake  of  emphasis,  we  sometimes 
lay  an  equal  stress  upon  two  successive  syllables:  as,  "  Di'-rect, 
soine-times  ;"  but  when  these  words  are  pronounced  alone,  they 
have  never  more  than  one  accent.  The  word  "a-men,"  is  the 
only  word  which  is  pronounced  with  two  accents  when  alone. 

Of  dissyllables,  formed  by  affixing  a  ternjination,  the  former 
syllable  is  commonly  accented:  as,  ''Childish,  kingdom,  actest, 
ycted,  toilsome,  lover,  scoffer,  faiVer,  foremost,  zealous,  fulness, 
meekly,  artist." 

Dissyllables  formed  by  prefixing  a  syllable  to  the  radical 
word,  have  commonly  the  accent  on  the  latter:  as,  **  To  beseem, 
to  bestow,  to  return." 

Of  dissyllables,  which  are  at  once  nouns  and  verbs,  the  verb  has 
commonly  the  accent  on  the  latter,  and  the  noun  on  the  former 
syllable  :  as,  "  To  cement,  a  cement ;  to  contract,  a  contract ;  to 
presage,  a  presage." 

This  rule  has  many  exceptions.  Though  verbs  seldom  have 
their  accent  on  the  former,  yet  nouns  often  have  it  on  the  latter 
syllable  :  as,  "  Delight,  perfume."  Those  nouns  which,  in  the 
common  order  of  language,  must  have  preceded  the  verbs,  often 
transmit  their  accent  to  the  verbs  they  form,  and  inversely. 
Thus,  the  noun  "  water"  must  have  preceded  the  verb ''  to  water," 
as  the  verb  "  to  correspond,"  must  have  preceded  the  noun  "cor- 
respondent:" and  "to  pursue"  claims  priority  to  "pursuit."  So 
that  we  may  conclude,  wherever  verbs  deviate  from  the  rule,  it 
is  seldom  by  chance,  and  generally  in  those  words  only  where  a 
superior  law  of  accent  takes  place. 

All  dissyllables  ending  in  ?/,  our,  ow,  le,  ish,  ck,  ier,  age,  en,  et . 
as,  "  Cranny,  labour,  willow,  wallow  ;"  except  "  allow,  avow, 
endow,  below,  bestow ;"  "  battle,  banish,  cambric^  batter,  cou- 
rage, fasten,  quiet ;"  accent  the  former  syllable. 

Dissyllable  nouns  in  ^r,  as,  *•  Canker,  butter,"  have  the  accent 
on  the  former  syllable. 

Dissyllable  verbs,  terminating  in  a  consonant  and  c  final,  as, 


I  Accent.]  PROSODY.  157 

**Coiijpnsej  escape;"  or  having  a  di[>fitliong  in  the  last  syllable, 
'  as,  *'  A}>pease,  reveal ;"  or  ending  in  tw^o  consonants  ;  as,  "  At  • 
tend  ;"  have  tlie  accents  on  the  latter  syllable. 

Dissyllable  nouns,  having  a  diphthong  in  the  latter  syllable, 
have  commonly  their  accent  oh  the  latter  syllable ;  as,  "  Ap- 
plause ;"  except  some  v^^ords  in  ain :  as,  "Villain,  curtain, 
mountain.'* 

Dissyllables  that  have  two  vowels,  which  are  separated  m  the 
pronunciation,  have  always  the  accent  on  the  first  syllable :  as, 
**  Lfon,  riot,  qui'et,  h'ar,  ruin  ;"  except  '*  create." 

•Accent  on   THsyllables. 

Trisyllables  formed  by  adding  a  termination,  or  prefixing  a 
syllable,  retain  the  accent  of  the  radical  word  :  as,  '*  Loveliness, 
tenderness,  contemner,  wagoner,  physical,  bespatter,  comment- 
ing, commending,  assurance." 

Trisyllables  ending  in  onSj  al,  ion  :  as,  **  arduous,  capital, 
mention,"  accent  the  first. 

Trisyllables  ending  in  ce,  ent,  and  ate,  accent  the  first  syllable: 
as,"  Countenance,  cuntinence,  armament,  utiminent,  elegant,  pro- 
pagate ;"  unless  they  are  derived  from  words  having  the  accent 
on  the  last :  as,  **  Connivance,  acquaintance ;"  and  unless  the 
middle  syllable  has  a  vowel  before  two  consonants :  as,  *'  Pro- 
mulgate." 

Tri  .llables  ending  in  y,  as,  *'  entity,  specify,  liberty,  vfctory, 
jubsidy,"  commonly  accent  the  first  syllable. 

Trisyllables  ending  in  re  or  /e,  accent  the  first  syllable :  as, 
**  Legible,  theatre ;"  except  *'  Disci'ple,"  and  some  words  which 
have  a  preposition:  as,  "  Example,  indenture." 

Trisyllables  ending  in  w</c,  commonly  accent  the  first  syllable, 
as,  "  Plenitude,  habitude,  rectitude." 

Trisyllables  ending  in  ator,  have  the  accent  on  the  middle 
syllable  ;  as,  "  Spectator,  creator,"  &c. :  except "  orator,  senator, 
barrator,  legator." 

Trisyllables  which  have  in  the  middle  syllable  a  diphthong, 
as,  "  Endeavour;"  or  a  vowel  before  two  consonants  ;  as,  *' Do- 
mestic;" accent  the  middle  syllable. 

Trisyllables  that  have  their  accent  on  the  last  syllable,  are 
commonly  French:  as,  *' Acquiesce,  repartee,  magazfne;"  or 
they  are  words  formed  by  prefixing  one  or  two  syllables  to  a 
long  syllable  :  as,  **LTimature,  overcharge." 

•Accent  on  Polysyllables, 

Polysyllables,  or  words  of  more  than  three  syllables,  generally 
follow  the  accent  of  the  words  from  which  they  are  derived 
as,  "  arrogating,  continency,  incontinently,  commendable,  com- 
rmlnicableness." 

Words  ending  in  ator  have  the  accent  generally  on  the  penul- 
timate, or  last  syllable  but  one :  as,  "  Emendator,  gladiator 
equivocator,  prevaricator  " 

Words  ending  in  le  commonly  have  the  accent  on  the  first  sy 

O 


158  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR.  [Sect,  a 

lable:  as,  "amicable,  despicable  :'*  unless  the  second  syllable  has 
a  vowel  before  two  consonants  :  as,  "  Combustible,  condemnable/' 

Words  ending  in  ion,  ous,  and  ty,  have  their  accent  on  th« 
antepenultimate,  or  last  syllable  but  two :  as,  **  Salvation,  vie 
torious,  activity." 

Words  which  end  in  la,  lo,  and  cal,  have  the  accent  on  the 
antepenult:  as,  "Cyclopaedia,  punctilio,  despotical." 

The  rules  respecting  accent,  are  not  advanced  as  complete  or 
infallible ;  they  are  merely  proposed  as  useful.  Almost  every 
rule  of  every  language  has  its  exceptions  ;  and,  in  English,  as  in 
other  tongues,  much  must  be  learned  by  example  and  authority. 

It  may  be  further  observed,  that  though  the  syllable  on  which 
the  principal  accent  is  placed,  is  fixed  and  certain,  yet  we  may, 
and  do,  frequentl}'^  make  the  secondary  principal,  and  the  prin- 
cipal secondary:  thus,  "CaraVan,  complaisant,  violin,  repartee^ 
referee,  privateer,  domineer,"  may  all  have  the  greater  stress  on 
the  first,  and  the  less  on  the  last  syllable,  without  any  violent 
offence  to  the  ear:  nay,  it  maybe  asserted,  that  the  principal 
accent  on  the  first  syllable  of  these  words,  and  none  at  all  on  the 
last,  though  certainly  improper,  has  nothing  in  it  grating  or  dis- 
cordant ;  but  placing  an  accent  on  the  second  syllable  of  these 
words  would  entirely  derange  them,  and  produce  great  harsh- 
ness and  dissonance.  The  same  observations  may  be  applied 
to  "  demonstration,  lamentation,  provocation,  navigator,  propa- 
gator, aUigator,"  and  every  similar  word  in  the  language, 

SECTION  II.     Of  quantity. 

The  quantity  of  a  syllable  is  that  tinie  which  is  occupied 
in  pronouncing  it.     It  is  considered  as  long  or  short. 

A  vowel  or  syllable  is  long,  when  the  accent  is  on  the 
vowel ;  which  occasions  it  to  be  slowly  joined  in  pronun- 
ciation with  the  following  letters  :  as,  "  Fall,  bale,  m65d, 
house,  feature." 

A  syllable  is  short,  when  the  accent  is  on  the  consonant ; 
which  occasions  the  vowel  to  be  quickly  joined  to  the  suc- 
ceeding letter :  as,  "  ant,  bonnet,  hunger." 

A  long  syllable  generally  requires  double  the  time  of  a 
short  one  in  pronouncing  it :  thus,  "  Mate"  "and  "  Note" 
should  be  pronounced  as  slowly  again  as  '*  Mat"  and  "Not.** 

Unaccented  syllables  are  generally  short :  as,  **  §.dmire,  bold- 
ness, sinner."  But  to  this  rule  there  are  many  exceptions:  as, 
*  also,  exile,  gangrene,  umpire,  foretaste,"  &c. 

When  the  accent  is  on  a  consonant,  the  syllable  is  often  more 
oi  ess  short,  as  it  ends  with  a  single  consonant,  or  with  more 
than  one :  as,  "  Sadly,  robber ;  persist,  matchless." 

When  the  accent  is  on  a  semi-vowel,  the  time  of  the  syllable 
may  be  protracted,  by  dwelling  upon  the  semi-vowel :  as,  ^  Cur' 
can",  fulfir  ;'*  but  when  the  accent  falls  on  a  mute,  the  syll) ' " 


^ 


Quantity,]  PROSODY.  159 

cannot  be  lengthened  in  the  same  manner :  as,  "  Biibhle,  cap- 
tain, totter." 

i'he  quantity  of  vowels  has,  in  some  measure,  been  considered 
under  the  first  part  of  grammru',  which  treats  (^f  the  different 
>iounds  of  the  letters;  and  therefore'  we  shall  dismiss  this  subject 
with  a  few  general  rules  and  observations. 

1st,  All  vowels  under  the  principal  accent,  before  the  termi- 
nations ra,  10,  and  lo/i,  preceded  by  a  single  consonant,  are  pro- 
nounced long:  as,  "  Regalia,  folio,  adhesion,  explosion,  confu- 
sion :"  except  the  vowel  i,  which  in  that  situation  is  short :  as, 
*  Militia,  punctilio,  decision,  contrition."  The  only  exceptions 
to  this  rule  seem  to  be  *■*■  Discretion,  battalion,  gladiator,  nation- 
h1,  and  rational." 

2d,  All  vowels  that  immediately  precede  tbe  terminations  ity 
and  ety^  are  pronounced  %ng :  as,  "  Deit3%  piety,  spontaneity." 
But  if  one  consonant  precedes  these  terminations,  every  pre- 
ceding accented  vov/el  is  short  :  except  w,  and  the  a  in  '*  scarci- 
ty," and  '*  rarity;"  as,  **  Polarity,  severity,  divinity,  curiosity; — 
impunity."  Even  u  before  two  consonants  contracts  itself:  as, 
**  Curvity,  taciturnity,"  &c. 

3d,  Vowels  under  the  principal  accent,  before  the  termina- 
tions ic  and  ical,  preceded  by  a  single  consonant,  are  pronounced 
short;  thus,  "  Satanic,  pathetic,  elliptic,  harmonic,"  have  the 
vowel  short ;  while  *^  Tunic,  runic,  cubic,"  have  the  accented 
vowel  long:  and  " Fanatical,  poetical,  levitical,  canonical,"  Jiave 
the  vowel  short ;  but  "  Cubical,  musical,"  &c.  have  the  u  long. 

4th,  The  vowel  in  the  antepenultimate  syllable  of  words,  with 
the  following  terminations,  is  always  i)ronounced  short. 

loquy  ;  as,  obloquy.  parous;  as,  oviparous. 

strophe;  as,  apostrophe.  cracy ;  as,  aristocracy. 

meter ;  as,  barometer.  g''>^jy  ;  as,  cosmogony. 

gonal;  as,  diagonal.  phony;  as,  symphony. 

vorous ;  as,  carnivorous.  nomy  ;  as,  astronom}'. 

ferons  :  as^omniferous.  tomy  ;  as,  anatomy. 

Jluous  ;  as,  superfluous.  paihy  ;  as,  antipathy 

faent ;  as,  mellifluent. 

As  no  utterance  which  is  void  of  proportion,"  can  be  agreeable 
to  the  ear;  and  as  quantity,  or  proportion  of  time  in  utterance, 
greatly  depends  on  a  due  attention  to  the  accent;  it  is  absolutely 
necessary  for  every  person  who  would  attain  a  just  and  pleasing 
delivery,  to  be  master  of  that  point.  Sec  this  section  in  the  Octavy 
Grammar, 

SECTION  in.    Of  Eviphasts, 

By  emphasis  is  nieant  a  stronger  and  fuller  sound  of  voice, 
by  which  we  distinguish  some  word  or  words  on  which  we 
design  to  lay  particular  stress,  and  to  show  how  they  aflfect 
the  rest  of  the  sentence.  Sometimes  the  emphatic  words 
must  be  distinguished  by  a  particular  tone  of  voico,  as  well 
as  by  a  greater  stress. 


160  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR.  [Sect,  fll 

On  die  riglit  management  of  tbe  emphasis  depends  tlie  life  of^ 
pronunciation.  If  no  emphasis  be  })laccd  on  any  words,  not 
only  will  discourse  be  rendered  heavy  and  lifeless,  Ijut  the  mean 
ing  often  left  a'.nbiguous.  If  llie  emphasis  be  i^laced  wrong,  we 
shall  pervert  and  confound  uie  meaning  wholly.  To  give  a 
common  instance:  such  a  simple  question  as  this,  "Do  you  ride 
to  town  to-day?"  is  capable  of  no  fewer  than  four  different  ac 
ceptations,  according  as  the  emphasis  is  difierently  placed  on 
the  words.  If  it  be  pronounced  thus:  '' Do  t/om  ride  to  town 
to-day  .?"  the  answer  may  naturally  be,  *'No,  we  send  a  servant 
in  our  stead."  If  thus :  "  Do  you  ride  to  town  to-day?"  answer, 
**  No,  we  intend  to  walk."  "  Do  you  ride  to  town  to-day  ?"  •  **  No, 
we  ride  into  the  country."  *' Do  you  ride  to  town  to-day  T' 
**  No,  but  we  shall  to-morrow."  In  like  manner,  in  solemn  dis- 
course, the  whole  force  and  beauty  of^n  expression  often  depend 
on  the  emphatic  word  ;  and  we  may  present  to  the  hearers  quite 
diffelrent  views  of  the  same  sentiment,  by  y)lacing  the  emphasis 
differentl3^  In  the  following  words  of  our  Saviour,  observe  in 
what  different  lights  the  thought  is  placed,  according  as  the 
words  are  pronounced.  "  Judas,  betrayest  thou  the  son  of  man 
with  a  kiss?"  ^^  Betrayest  thou,"  makes  the  reproach  turn  on 
the  infamy  of  treachery.  **  Betrayest  thou^^*  makes  it  rest  upon 
Judas's  connexion  with  his  master.  "  Betrayest  thou  the  son  oj 
mariy^^  rests  it  upon  our  Saviour's  personal  character  and  emi- 
nence. "  Betrayest  thou  the  son  of  man  ivith  a  kissT*  turns  il 
upon  his  prostituting  the  signal  of  peace  and  friendship  to  tho 
purpose  of  destruction. 

The  emphasis  often  lies  on  the  word  that  asks  a  question 
as,  *'  fVho  said  so  ?"  "  When  will  he  come  ?"  *'  IVhat  shall  I  do  ?" 
"  W hither  sh'dW  I  go  ?"  "  Why  dost  thou  weep  ?"  And  when  two 
words  are  set  in  contrast,  or  in  opposition  to  one  another,  they 
are  both  emphatic  ;  as,  "  He  is  the  tyrant,  not  the  father,  of  his 
people  ;"  "  His  subjects/ear  him,  but  they  do  not  love  him." 

Some  sentences  are  so  full  and  compreli^nsiv^,  that  almost 
every  word  is  emphatical :  as,  **Ye  hills  and  dales,  ye  rivers, 
woods,  and  plains  :"  or,  as  that  pathetic  expostulation  in  the 
prophecy  of  Ezekiel,  "  Why  will  ye  die  !"  In  the  latter  short 
sentence,  every  word  is  emphatical ;  and  on  which  ever  word 
we  lay  the  emphasis,  whether  on  the  first,  second,  third,  or 
fourth,  it  strikes  out  a  different  sense,  and  opens  a  new  subject 
of  moving  expostulation. 

As  accent  dignifies  the  syllable  on  which  it  is  laid,  and  makea 
It  more  distinguished  by  the  ear  than  the  rest  ;  so  emphasis  en 
nobles  the  word  to  which  it  belongs,  and  presents  it  in  a  stronger 
/ight  to  the  understanding.  Were  there  no  accents,  words  would 
be  resolved  into  their  original  syllables:  were  there  no  emphasis, 
sentences  would  be  resolved  into  their  original  words;  and,  in 
this  case,  the  hearer  would  be  under  the  painful  necessity,  first,  of 
making  out  the  words,  and  aflerwards,  their  meaning. 

Kmphasia  is  of  two  kinds,  simple  and  complex.  Simple,  whecf 


Emphasis.]  PROSODY.  161 

It  serves  to  point  o\it  only  the  plain  meaning  of  any  proposition  ; 
com})lex,  when,  besides  the  meaning,  it  marks  also  some  affection 
or  emotion  of  tlie  mind  ;  or  gives  a  meaning  to  words,  which 
they  would  not  have  in  their  usual  acceptation.  In  the  former 
case,  empliasis  is  scarcely  more  than  a  stronger  accent,  with 
little  or  no  cl»ange  of  tone;  wljen  it  is  complex,  besides  force, 
there  is  always  superadded  a  maniftjst  change  of  tone. 

The  following  sentence  contains  an  exam})le  of  simple  empha- 
Bis:  "And  Nathan  said  to  David,  7Viou  art  the  man."  The 
emphasis  on  thou^  serves  only  to  point  out  the  meaning  of  the 
speaker.  But  in  the  sentence  which  follows,  we  perceive  an 
emotion  of  the  speaker  superadded  to  the  simple  meaning :  '*  Why 
will  ye  die!" 

As  the  emphasis  often  falls  on  words  in  different  parts  of  the 
«ame  sei;tence,  so  it  is  frequently  required  to  be  continued,  with 
a  httle  variation,  on  two,  and  sometimes  three  words  together. 
The  following  sentence  exemplifies  both  the  parts  of  this  posi- 
tion :  *'  If  you  seek  to  make  one  rich,  study  not  to  increase  his 
stores,  but  to  diminish  his  desires^  Emphasis  may  be  further 
distinguished,  into  the  weaker  and  the  stronger  emphasis.  In 
the  sentence,  "  Exercise  and  temperance  strengthen  the  con- 
stitution ;"  we  perceive  more  force  on  the  word  strengthen^  than 
on  any  other;  though  it  is  not  equal  to  the  stress  which  we 
apply  to  the  word  indifferent,  \i\  the  following  sentence  :  "  Exer- 
cise and  temperance  strengthen  even  an  i/j/ii^ercni  constitution.'* 
It  is  also  proper  to  remark,  that  the  words  exercise,  temperance^ 
constitution,  in  the  last  example  but  one,  are  pronounced  with 
greater  force,  than  the  particles  and  and  the  ;  and  yet  those  words 
cannot  properly  be  called  emphatical :  for  the  stress  that  is  laid 
on  them,  is  no  more  than  sufi.cient  to  convey  distinctly  the  mean- 
ing of  each  w^ord. — From  these  observations  it  appears,  that  the 
smaller  parts  of  speech,  namely,  the  articles,  conjunctions,  pre- 
positions, A:c.  are,  in  general,  obscurely  and  feebly  expressed  ; 
that  the  substantives,  verbs,  and  more  significant  words,  are 
firmly  and  distinctly  pronounced  ;  and  that  the  emphatical  words, 
those  which  mark  the  meaning  of  a  phrase,  are  pronounced  with 
peculiar  stress  and  energy,  though  varied  according  to  the 
degree  of  their  importance. 

Emphasis,  besides  its  other  offices,  is  the  great  regulator  of 
quantity.      Though  the  quantity  of  our  syllables  is   fixed,  in 
words  separately  pronounced,  yet  it  is  mutable,  when  these  worda 
are  ranged  in  sentences;  the  long  being  changed  into  short,  the 
short  into  long,  according  to  the  importance  of  the  words  with 
regard  to  m.eaning :  and  as  it  is  by  emphasis  only^  that  the  mean- 
ing can  he  pointed  out,  emphasis  must  be  the  regulator  of  the 
quantity.     A  few  examples  will  make  this  point  very  evident. 
Pleas'd  thou  shalt  hear — and  learn  the  secret  power,  A^, 
PleasM  thOQ  shalt  hear — and  thou  alone  shalt  hear — 
Pleas'd  thou  shalt  hear — in  spite  of  them  shalt  hear — 
rieas'd  thou  shalt  hear — though  not  behdld  the  fair— 
02 


162  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR.  [Sect,  uh  ^ 

In  the  first  of  these  instances,  the  words  pUas^d  and  Maty  be- 
ing equally  eniphatical,  are  both  long;  whilst  the  two  interme- 
diate words,  thou  and  shdlt,  being  rapidly  passed  over,  as  the 
sense  demands,  are  reduced  to  a  short  quantity. 

In  the  second  instance,  the  word  thou  by  being  the  most  im 
portant,  obtains  the  chief,  or  ratlier  tbe  sole  emphasis  ;  and  thus,  j 
it  is  not  only  restored  to  its  natural  long  quantity,  but  obtains 
from  emphasis  a  still  greater  degree  of  length,  tlian  when  pro- 
nounced in  its  separate  state.  This  greater  degree  of  length, 
is  compensated  by  the  diminution  of  quantity  in  the  words  jy/ca^-rf 
and  hear^  which  are  sounded  sliorter  than  in  the  preceding  in- 
stance. The  word  shalt  still  continues  short.  Here  we  may 
also  observe,  that  though  thou  is  long  in  the  first  part  of  the 
verse,  it  becomes  short  when  repeated  in  the  second,  on  account 
of  the  more  forcible  emphasis  belonging  to  the  word  almtt^  which 
follows  it. 

In  the  third  instance,  the  word  shalt  having  the  emphosis, 
obtains  a  long  quantity.  And  though  it  is  impossible  to  pro- 
long the  sound  of  this  word,  as  it  ends  in  a  pure  mute,  yet  in 
this,  as  in  all  similar  instances,  the  additional  quantity  is  to  be 
made  out  by  a  rest  of  the  voice,  proportioned  to  the  importance 
of  the  word.  In  this  instance,  we  may  also  observe,  that  tha 
word  shalt^  repeated  in  the  second  part  of  the  line,  is  reduced 
again  to  a  short  quantity. 

In  the  fourth  instance,  the  word  Mar  placed  in  opposition  to 
the  word  behold,  in  the  latter  part  of  the  line,  obtains  from  the 
sense  the  chief  emphasis,  and  a  proportionate  length.  The  words 
Ihou  and  shaltj  are  again  reduced  to  short  quantities ;  and  the 
word  pleased  lends  some  of  the  time  which  it  possessed,  to  the 
more  important  word  hear. 

From  these  instances,  it  is  evident,  that  the  quantity  of  our 
syllables  is  not  fixed  ;  but  governed  by  emphasis. — To  observe  a 
due  measurement  of  time,  on  all  occasions,  is  dotJbtless  very 
difiicult ;  but  by  instruction,  attention,  and  practice,  the  difficulty 
may  be  overcome. 

Emphasis  changes,  not  only  the  quantity  of  words  and  sylla- 
bles, bat  also,  in  particular  cases,  the  seat  of  the  accent.  This  is 
demonstrable  from  the  following  examples. 

"  He  shall  i7icrease,  but  T  shall  c^^crease."  **  There  is  a  differ- 
ence between  giving  and  /(irgiving."  "  In  this  species  of  com- 
position, ^/aiisibility  is  much  more  essential  than  probability."  In 
these  examples,  the  emphasis  requires  the  accent  to  be  placed  on 
syllables,  to  which  it  does  not  commonly  belong. 

In  order  to  acquire  the  proper  management  of  the  emphasis, 
the  great  rule,  and  indeed  the  only  rule  possible  to  be  given,  is, 
tliat  the  speaker  or  reader  study  to  attain  a  just  conce})tion  of  the 
force  and  spirit  of  the  sentiments  which  hC  is  to  pronounce.  For 
to  lay  the  emphasis  with  exact  propriety,  is  a  constant  exercise 
of  good  serine  and  attention.  It  is  far  from  being  an  inconsidyra- 
ble  attainment.    It  is  one  of  the  greatest  trials  of  a  true  and  just 


pAtsEs.]  PROSODY.  163 

taste  :  and  must  arise  from  feeling  delicately  ourselves,  and  from 
judging  accurat(dy,  of  what  is  fittest  to  stiike  the  feelings  of  others. 

There  is  one  error,  against  which  it  is  particularly  proper  to 
caution  the  learner  ;  namely,  that  of  multiplying  emphatical 
words  too  much.  It  is  only  by  a  prudent  reserve  in  the  use  of 
them,  that  we  can  give  them  any  weight.  If  they  recur  too  often ;  if 
H  speaker  or  reader  attempts  to  render  every  thing  which  he  ex- 
presses of  higli  importance,  hy  a  multitude  of  strong  emphases, 
we  soon  learn  to  pay  little  regard  to  them.  To  crowd  every 
sentence  with  em})hatical  words,  is  like  crowding  all  the  pages 
af  a  book  with  Italic  characters,  which,  as  to  the  effect,  i»  jusi  the 
Bame  as  to  use  no  such  distinctions  at  all. 

SECTION  IV.     Of  Pauses. 

Pauses  or  rests,  in  speaking  and  reading,  are  a  total  ces- 
sation of  the  voice,  during  a  perceptible,  and,  in  many 
cases,  a  measurable  space  of  time. 

Pauses  are  equally  necessary  to  the  speaker,  and  the  hearer. 
To  the  speaker,  that  he  may  take  breath,  without  which  he  can- 
not proceed  far  in  delivery  ;  and  that  he  may,  by  these  temporary 
rests,  relieve  the  organs  of  speech,  which  otherwise  would  be  soon 
dred  by  continued  action  ;  to  the  hearer,  that  the  ear  also  may 
1)6  relieved  from  the  fatigue,  which  it  would  otherwise  endure 
from  a  continuity  of  sound  ;  and  that  the  understanding  may  have 
sufficient  time  to  mark  the  distinction  of  sentences,  and  their  se- 
veral members. 

There  are  two  kinds  of  pauses:  first,  emphatical  pauses;  and 
next,  such  as  mark  the  distinctions  of  the  sense.  An  emphatical 
pause  is  made,  after  something  has  been  said  of  peculiar  moment, 
and  on  which  we  desire  to  fix  the  hearer's  attention.  Sometimes, 
before  such  a  thing  is  said,  we  usiier  it  in  with  a  pause  of  this  na- 
ture. Such  pauses  have  the  same  effect  as  a  strong  emphasis; 
and  ai'e  suT)ject  to  the  same  rules;  especially  to  the  caution  just 
now  given,  of  not  repeating  them  too  frequently.  For  as  they 
excite  uncommon  attention,  and  of  course  raise  expectation,  if 
the  importance  of  the  matter  is  not  fully  answerable  to  such  ex- 
pectation, they  occasion  disappointment  and  disgust. 

But  the  most  frequent  and  the  ])rincipal  use  of  pauses,  is,  to 
mark  the  divisions  of  the  sense,  and  at  the  same  time  to  allow 
the  speaker  to  draw  his  breath  ;  and  the  proper  and  delicate  ad 
justment  of  such  pauses,  is  one  of  the  most  nice  and  diflicult  ar 
tides  of  delivery.     In  all  reading,  and  public  speaking,  the  ma 
nagement  of  the  breath  requires  a  good  deal  of  care,  so  as  not  tc 
oblige  us  to  divide  w^ords  from  one  another,  which  have  so  inti 
mate  a  connexion,  that  they  ought  to  be  pronounced  with  the 
same  breath,  and  without  the  least  separation.   Many  seniencea 
are  miserably  mangled,  and  the  force  of  the  emphasis  totally  lost, 
by  the  divisions  being  made  in  the  wrong  place.     To  avoid  this, 
every  one,  while  he  is  speaking  or  reading,  should  be  very  care- 
iul  K  provide  a  full  supply  of  breath  for  what  he  is  to  utter.  Itii 


164  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR.  [Sect.  ir. 

n  great  mistake  to  imagine,  that  the  breatli  must  be  drawn  only 
at  tiiC  end  of  a  period,  wlien  the  voice  is  allowed  to  fall.  It  may 
easily  be  gathered  at  the  intervals  of  the  period,  when  the  voice 
is  only  suspendeu  for  a  monicnt ;  and,  by  this  management,  one 
may  always  have  a  sufficient  stock  for  carrying  on  the  longest 
sentence,  without  improper  interruptions. 

Pauses  in  reading,  and  public  discourse,  must  be  formed  upon 
the  manner  in  which  we  utter  ourselves  in  ordinary,  sensible 
conversation  ;  and  not  upon  the  stiff  artificial  manner  which  we 
acquire,  from  reading  books  according  to  the  common  punctua 
tion.  It  will  by  no  means  be  sufficient  to  attend  to  the  points  used 
in  printing;  for  these  are  far  from  marking  all  the  pauses  which 
ought  to  be  made  in  speaking.  A  mechanical  attejition  to  these 
resting-places  has  perhaps  been  one  cause  of  monotony,  by  lead- 
ing the  reader  to  a  similar  tone  at  every  stop,  and  a  uniform  ca 
dcnce  at  every  period.  The  primary  use  of  points  is,  to  assist  the 
reader  in  discerning  the  grammatical  construction  ;  and  it  is  only 
as  a  secondary  object,  tliat  they  regulate  liis  pronunciation. 

To  render  pauses  pleasing  and  expressive,  they  must  not  only 
be  made  in  the  right  place,  but  also  accompanied  with  a  proper 
tone  of  voice,  by  which  the  natuie  of  these  pauses  is  intimated  ; 
much  more  than  by  the  length  of  them,  which  can  seldom  be 
exactly  measured.  Sometimes  it  is  only  a  slight  and  simple  sus  • 
pension  of  voice  that  is  proper  ;  sometimes  a  degree  of  cadencf 
in  the  voice  is  required ;  and  sometimes  that  peculiar  tone  an-i 
cadence  which  denote  the  sentence  to  be  finished.  In  all  these 
cases,  we  are  to  regulate  ourselves,  *by  attending  to  the  manner 
in  which  nature  teaches  us  to  speak,  when  engaged  in  real  and 
earnest  discourse  with  others. 

It  is  a  general  rule,  that  the  suspending  pause  should  be  used 
"wlien  the  sense  is  incomplete;  and  tl)e  closing  pause,  when  it  is 
finished.  But  there  are  phraseS;  in  which,  though  the  sense  ia 
not  completed,  the  voice  takes  the  closing,  rather  than  the  sus- 
pending pause  ;  and  others,  in  which  the  sentence  finishes  by  the 
pause  of  suspension. 

The  closing  pause  must  not  be  confounded  with  tha4:  fall  of  the 
voice,  or  cadence,  with  which  many  readers  uniformly  finish  a 
sentence.  Nothing  is  more  destructive  of  propriety  and  energy 
than  this  habit.  The  tones  and  inflections  of  the  voice  at  the 
close  of  a  sentence,  ought  to  be  diversified,  according  to  the 
general  nature  of  the  discourse,  and  the  particular  construc- 
tion and  meaning  of  the  sentence.  In  j)lain  narrative,  and  es- 
pecially in  argumentation,  a  small  attention  to  the  manner  in 
which  we  relate  a  fact,  or  maintain  an  argument,  in  conversa- 
tion, will  show,  that  it  is  frequently  more  proper  to  raise  the 
voice,  than  to  let  it  fall,  at  the  end  of  a  sentence.  Some  sen- 
tences are  so  constructed,  that  the  last  words  require  a  stronger 
emphasis  than  any  of  the  preceding  ;  while  others  admit  of  being 
closed  with  a  soft  and  gontle  sound.  Where  there  is  nothing  in 
tbe  sense  which  requires  the  last  sound  to  be  elevated  or  em* 


roiTBS.]  PROSODY.  165 

pliaticul,  an  easy  fall,  sufficient  to  show  that  the  sense  is  finislied^ 
»vill  be  pro[»er.  And  in  })?.  letic  jjieces,  especially  those  of  the 
plaintive,  tender,  or  solemn  ki^id,  the  tone  of  the  passion  will  of- 
ten require  a  still  greater  cadence  of  the  voice.  The  best  me- 
thod of  correcting  a  uniform  cadence,  is  frequently  to  read  «eZec/ 
untenccs,  in  which  the  style  is  pointed,  and  in  which  antitheses 
are  frequently  introduced:  and  argumentative  pieces,  or  such  as 
abound  with  interrogatives,  or  earnest  exclamation. 

SECTION   V.     Of  Tones. 
Tones   are  different  both  from  emphasis  and  pauses; 
consisting  in  the  modulation  of  the  voice,  the  notes  or  vari- 
ations of  sound  which  we  employ  in  the  expression  of  our 
sentiments. 

Emphasis  affects  particular  words  and  phrases  with  a  degree 
of  totie  or  inflection  of  the  voice;  but  tones,  peculiarly  so  called, 
affect  sentences,  paragraphs,  and  sometimes  even  the  whole  oi 
a  discourse. 

To  show  the  use  and  necessity  of  tones,  we  need  only  observe, 
that  the  mind,  in  communicating  its  ideas,  is  in  a  continual  state 
of  activity,  emotion,  or  agitation,  from  the  different  effects  which 
those  ideas  produce  in  the  speaker.  Now  the  end  of  such  cum- 
luunication  being,  not  merely  to  lay  open  the*ideas,  but  also  the 
different  feelings  which  they  excite  in  him  who  utters  them, 
there  must  be  other  signs  than  words,  to  manifest  those  feelings  j 
as  words  uttered  in  a  monotonous  manner,  can  represent  only  a 
similar  state  of  mind,  perfectly  fre^  from  all  activity  or  emotion. 
As  tbe  comnmnication  of  these  internal  feelings,  was  of  much 
more  consequence  in  our  social  intercourse,  than  the  mere  con- 
veyance of  ideas,  the  Author  of  our  being  did  not,  as  in  that 
conveyance,  leave  the  invention  of  the  language  of  emotion,  to 
man  ;  but  impressed  it  himself  upon  our  nature  in  the  same  man- 
ner as  he  has  done  with  regard  to  the  rest  of  the  animal  world ; 
all  of  which  express  their  various  feelings,  by  various  tones. 
Ours  indeed,  from  the  superior  rank  that  we  hold„  are  in  a  high 
degree  more  comprehensive  ;  as  there  is  not  an  act  of  the  mind, 
an  exertion  of  the  fancy,  or  an  emotion  of  the  heart,  which  has 
not  its  peculiar  tone,  or  note  of  the  voice,  by  which  it  is  to  be  ex- 
pressed ;  and  which  is  suited  exactly  to  the  degree  of  internal 
feeling.  It  is  chiefly  in  the  proper  use  of  these  tones,  that  the 
life,  spirit,  beauty,  and  harmony  of  delivery  consist. 

An  extract  from  the  beautiful  lamentation  of  David  over  Saul 
and  Jonathan,  may  serve  as  an  example  of  what  has  been  said 
on  this  subject.  "The  beauty  of  Israel  is  slain  upon  thy  high 
places.  How  are  the  mighty  fallen  !  Tell  it  not  in  Gath  ;  publish 
it  not  in  the  streets  of  Askelon  :  lest  the  daughters  of  the  Philis- 
tines rejoice  ;  lest  the  daughters  of  the  uncircumcised  triumph. 
Yo  mountains  of  Gilboa,  let  there  be  no  dew,  nor  rain  upon  you. 
oor  fields  of  offerings;  for  there  the  shield  of  the  mighty  was 


.66  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR.     [VERsincATiorf 

vilely  cast  away ;  the  shield  of  Saul,  as  though  he  had  not  beei? 
anointed  with  oil !"  Tiie. first  of  these  divisions  expresses  sorrow 
and  lamentation  ;  therefore  the  note  is  lo.w.  The  next  contains 
a  spirited  command,  and  should  be  pronounced  much  higher, 
The  other  sentence,  in  which  he  maizes  a  pathetic  address  to  the 
mountains  where  his  friends  were  slain,  must  be  expressed  in  a 
note  quite  different  from  the  two  former;  not  so  low  as  the  first, 
nor  so  high  as  the  second,  in  a  manly,  firm,  and  yet  ])laintive  tone.* 

This  correct  and  natural  language  of  the  emotions,  is  not  so 
difficult  to  be  attained,  as  most  readers  seem  to  imagine.  If  we* 
enter  into  the  spirit  of  the  author's  sentiments,  as  well  as  into 
the  meaning  of  liis  words,  we  shall  not  fail  to  deliver  the  words 
in  properly  varied  tones.  For  there  are  few  people,  wiio  speak 
English  without  a  provincial  tone,  that  have  not  an  accurate  use 
of  emphasis,  pauses,  and  tones,  when  they  utter  their  sentimewts 
in  earnest  discourse  :  and  the  reason  that  they  have  not  the  same 
use  of  them,  in  reading  aloud  the  sentiments  of  others,  may  be 
traced  to  the  very  defective  and  erroneous  method,  in  which  thr? 
art  of  reading  is  taught ;  whereby  all  the  various,  natural,  ey 
pressive  tones  of  speech,  are  suppressed,  and  a  few  artificial, 
unmeaning,  reading  notes,  are  substituted  for  them. 

But  when  we  recommend  to  readers  an  attention  to  the  tone 
and  language  of  emotions,  we  must  be  understood  to  do  it  with 
proper  limitation.  *  Moderation  is  necessary  in  this  point,  as  it 
is  in  other  things.  For  when  reading  becomes  strictly  imitative, 
it  assumes  a  theatrical  manner,  and  must  be  highly  improper,  as 
well  as  give  offence  to  the  hearers  ;  because  it  is  inconsistent 
with  that  delicacy  and  modesty,  wiiich,  on  all  occasions,  ai« 
indispensable. 

CHAPTER  II. 
OF  VERSIFICATION 

As  there  are  few  persons *who  do  not  sometimes  read  poetical 
composition,  it  seems  necessary  to  give  the  student  some  idea  of 
that  part  of  grammar,  which  explains  the  principles  of  versifi- 
cation ;  that,  in  reading  poetry,  he  may  be  the  better  able  to 
judge  of  its  correctness,  and  relish  its  beauties.  When  this  lively 
mode  of  exhibiting  nature  and  sentiment,  is  perfectly  chaste,  it 
is  often  found  to  be  highly  interesting  and  inf?tructive. 

Versification  is  the  arrangement  of  a  certain  nuniber 
and  variety  of  syllables,  according  to  certain  laws. 

Rhyme  is  the  correspondence  of  the  last  sound  of  one 
verse,  to  the  kst  sound  or  syllable  of  another. 

Feet  and  pauses  are  the  constituent  parts  of  verse.  We 
shall  consider  these  separately. 

OF    POETICAL    FEET. 

A  certain  number  of  syllables  connected,  form  a  foot.  They 
are  called /ce^,  because  it  is  by  their  aid  that  the  voice,  as  it  were, 

»  Herries.  ^ 


VERsiFicATiaN.]  PROSODY.  107 

Bteps  along  through  the  verse,  in  a  measured  pace  ;  and  it  is 
necessary  that  the  syllables  which  mark  this  regular  movement 
of  the  voice,  should,  in  some  manner,  be  distinguished  from  the 
others.  This  distinction  was  made  among  the  ancient  Romans, 
by  dividing  their  syllables  into  long  and  short,  and  ascertaining 
iheir  quantity  by  an  exact  proportion  of  time  in  sounding  them  ; 
the  long  being  to  the  short,  as  two  to  one  ;  and  the  long  syllables, 
being  thus  the  more  important,  marked  the  movement.  In  Eng 
lish,  syllables  are  divided  into  accented  and  unaccented  ;  and  the 
accented  syllables  being  as  strongly  distinguished  from  the  unac- 
cented, by  the  peculiar  stress  of  the  voice  upon  them,  are  equally 
capable  of  marking  the  movement,  and  pointing  out  the  regular 
paces  of  the  voice,  as  the  long  syllables  were  by  their  quantity, 
among  the  Romans. 

When  the  feet  are  formed  by  an  accent  on  vowels,  they  are 
exactly  of  the  same  nature  as  the  ancient  feet,  and  have  the  same 
Ms-t  quantity  in  their  syllables.  So  that,  in  this  respect,  we  have 
m11  that  the  ancients  had,  and  something  which  they  had  not. 
We  have  in  fact  duplicates  of  each  foot,  yet  with  such  a  difference, 
83  to  fit  them  for  different  purposes,  to  be  applied  at  our  pleasure. 

Every  foot  has,  from  nature,  powers  peculiar  to  itself;  and  it 
IS  upon  the  knowledge  and  right  application  of  these  powers, 
that  the  pleasure  and  effect  of  numbers  chiefl}^ depend. 

All  feet  used  in  poetry  consist  either  of  two,  or  of  three  sylla- 
bles ;  and  are  reducible  to  eight  kinds ;  four  of  two  syllables,  and 
four  of  three,  as  follows  : 

DISSYLLABLE.  TRISYLLABLE. 

A  Trochee  -  u  A  Dactyl  -  w  w 

An  Iambus  w-  An  Amphibrach  v-w 

A  Spondee  —  An  Anapaest  vy  w  - 

A  Pyrrhic  ^  ^  A  Tribrach  o  u  ^  > 

A  Trochee  has  the  first  syllable  accented,  and  the  last  unac- 
cented: as,  "  Hateful,  pettish." 

An  Iambus  has  the  first  syllable  unaccented,  and  the  last  ac- 
cented :  as,  "  Betray,  consi'st." 

A  Spondee  has  both  the  words  or  syllables  accented :  as,  "The 
pale  moon." 

A  Pyrrhic  has  both  the  words  or  syllables  unaccented :  as, 
"  on  the  tali  tree." 

A  Dactyl  has  the  first  syllable  accented,  and  the  two  latter 
unaccented:  as,  "Labourer,  possible." 

An  Amphibrach  has  the  first  and  last  syllables  unaccented : 
and  the  middle  one  accented  :  as,  "Delightful,  domestic." 

An  Anapaest  has  the  two  first  syllables  unaccented,  and  the 
last  accented  :  as,  "  Contravene,  acquiesce." 

A  Tribrach  has  all  its  syllables  unaccented  :  as,  "  Nomerabld, 
conquerable." 

Some  of  these  feet  may  be  denominated  principal  feet;  as 
pieces  c/ poetry  may  be  wholly,  or  chiefly  formed  of  any  of  them* 


168  ENGLJSU  GRAMMAR.       [Vi^Rij/irATior 

Such  are  the  Iambus,  Trochee,  Dactyl,  an(?  Ar?9pcr8t.  TIhi 
others  may  be  termed  secondary  feet;  because  their  chief  ^se  iw 
to  diversity  the  numbers,  and  to  improve  the  v*»,rse. 

We  shall  first  explain  the  nature  of  the  principal  feet. 

IAMBIC  verses  may  be  divided  into  several  species,  according 
to  the  number  of  feet  or  syllables  of  which  they  are  composed. 

1  The  shortest  form  of  the  English  Iambic  consists  of  an 
Iambus,  with  an  additional  short  syllable  ;  as, 

Disdaining, 

Complainmg, 

Consenting, 

Repenting, 
We  have  no  poeni  of  this  measure,  but  it  may  be  met  with  in 
stanzas.     The  Iambus,  with  this  addition,  coincides  with  the 
Amphibrach. 

2  The  second  form  of  our  Iambic  is  also  too  short  to  be  continu 
ed  through  any  great  number  of  lines.  It  consists  of  <tro  Iambuses 

What  place  Ts  here  ! 
What  scenes  appear ! 
To  me  the  rose 
No  longer  glows. 
It  sometiaies  takes,  or  may  take,  an  additional  short  syllable ;  ag* 
Upon  a  mountain 
Beside  a  fountain. 

3  The  third  form  consists  of  three  Iambuses. 

In  places  far  or  near, 
Or  famous  or  obscure, 
Where  wholesome  is  the  air, 
Or  where  the  most  impure. 
It  sometimes  admits  of  an  additional  short  syllable :  as, 
Our  hearts  no  longer  langtiish. 

4  The  fourth  form  is  made  up  of  four  Iambuses. 

And  may  at  l?st  my  weary  age. 
Find  out  the  peaceful  hermitage. 

5  The  fifth  species  of  English  Iambic,  consists  of  Jive  Iambuses. 

How  lov'd,  how  valu'd  once,  avails  thee  not, 

To  whom  related,  or  by  whom  begot : 

A  heap  of  dust  alone  remains  of  thee; 

'Tis  all  thou  art,  and  all  the  proud  shall  be. 

Be  wise  to-day,  ^tis  madness  to  defer : 

Next  day  the  fatal  precedent  will  plead  ; 

Thus  on,  till  wisdom  is  pushed  out  of  life. 
This  is  called  the  Heroic  measure.  In  its  simplest  form  !i 
Bists  of  five  Iambuses ;  but  by  the  admission  of  other  feet,  at 
Trochees,  Dactyls,  Anapaests,  &c.  it  is  capableof  many  varieties 
Indeed,  most  of  the  English  common  measures  may  be  varied  in 
the  same  way,  as  well  as  by  the  different  position  of  their  pauses. 

6  The  sixth  form  of  our  Iambic  is  commonly  caUed  the  Jllev* 
amdrine  measure.     It  consists  of  six  Iambuses. 

For  thOu  ^rt  bQt  of  dOst ;  be  humbi^  and  be  wise.   •« 


t 


Versification.]  PROSODY.  160 

The  Alexandrine  is  sometimes  introduced  into  heroic  rliyme , 
and  when  used  sparingly,  and  with  judgment,  occasions  an 
agreeable  variety. 

The  seas  shall  waste,  the  skies  in  smoke  decSy, 
Rocks  fall  to  dust,  and  mountains  melt  away  ; 
But  fixVl  his  word,  his  saving  pow'r  remains : 
Thy  realm  for  ever  lasts  ^  thy  own  Messiah  reigns* 
7  The  seventh  and  last  form  of  our  Iambic  measure,  is  made 
up  of  seven  Iambuses. 

The  Lord  descended  from  abOve, 
And  bowM  the  heavens  high. 
This  was  anciently  written  in  one  line  ;  but  it  is  now  broken 
into  two ;  the  first  containing  four  feet,  and  the  second  three  . 
When  fill  thy  mercies,  O  my  God  ! 

My  rising  soul  surveys. 
Transported  with  the  view,  I'm  lost 
In  wonder,  love,  and  praise. 
In  all  these  measures,  the  accents  are  to  be  placed  on  even  syl- 
lables ;  and  every  line  considered  by  itself,  is,  in  general,  more 
melodious,  as  this  rule  is  more  strictly  observed. 

TROCHAIC  verse  is  of  several  kinds. 

1  The  shortest  Trochaic  verse  in  our  language,  consists  of 
one  Trochee  and  a  long  syllable. 

Tumult  cease, 

Sink  to  peace. 
This  measure  is  defective  in  dignity,  and  can  seldom  be  used  on 
serious  occasions.  . 

2  The  second  English  form  of  the  Trochaic  consists  of  two 
feet ;  and  is  likewise  so  brief,  that  it  is  rarely  used  for  any  very 
serious  purpose. 

On  the  mountain 

By  a  fountain. 
It  sometimes  contains  two  feet  or  trochees,  with  an  addition&l 
long  syllable  :  as. 

In  the  days  of  old 

Fables  plainly  told. 

3  The  third  species  consists  of  three  trochees :  as, 

When  our  hearts  are  mourning : 
or  of  three  trochees,  with  an  additional  long  syllable  ;  as, 
Restless  mortals  toil  for  nought ; 
Bliss  in  vain  from  earth  is  sought ; 
Bliss,  a  native  of  the  sky, 
Never  wanders.     Mortals,  try; 
There  you  cannot  seek  in  vain  ; 
For  to  seek  her  is  to  gain. 

4  The  fourth  Trochaic  species  consists  of  four  trochees:  aa 

Round  us  roars  the  tempest  louder. 
This  form  may  take  an  additional  long  syllable,  as  follows 


i 


170  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR.      LVERsincATio.f 

Idle  after  dinner  In  Ii^s  chair, 
Sat  a  farmer,  ruddy,  fat,  and  fair. 
But  this  measure  is  very  uncommon. 

5  The  fifth  Trochaic  species  is  likewise  uncommon.     It  is 
composed  of  Jive  trochees.  ■■ 

All  that  walk  on  foot  or  ride  in  chariots,  II 

All  that  dwell  in  palaces  or  garrets. 

6  The  sixth  form  of  the  English  Trochaic  consists  of  sit 
trochees :  as, 

On  a  mountain,  stretch'd  beneath  a  hoary  willow 
Lay  a  shepherd  swain,  and  view'd  the  rolling  billow. 
This  seems  to  be  the  longest  Trochaic  line  that  our  language 
admits. 

In  all  these  Trochaic  measures,  the  accent  is  to  be  placed  on 
the  odd  syllables. 

The  DACTYLIC  measure  being  very  uncommon,  we  shall 
give  only  one  example  of  one  species  of  it: 

From  the  16 av  pleasures  of  this  fallen  nature, 
Rise  we  to  higher,  &c. 
ANAPJESTIC  verses  are  divided  into  several  species. 

1  The  shortest  anapaestic  verse  must  be  a  single  anapaest:  as, 

But  in  vain, 
They  complain. 
This  measure  is,  however,  ambiguous  ;  for,  by  laying  the  stress 
of  the  voice  on  the  first  and   third  syllables,  we  might  make  a 
trochaic.     And  therefore  the  first  and  simplest  form  of  our  ge- 
nuine Anapaestic  verse,  is  made  up  of  ^u>o  Anapa?sts:  as, 
But  his  courage  'gan  fail, 
For  no  arts  could  avail. 
This  form  admits  of  an  additional  short  syllable. 
Then  his  courage  'gan  fail  him, 
For  no  arts  could  avail  him. 

2  The  second  species  consists  of  three  Anapaests. 

O  ye  woods,  spread  your  branches  apace ; 
To  your  deepest  recesses  I  fly  ; 
would  hide  with  the  beasts  of  the  chace ; 
I  would  vanish  from  every  eye. 
This  is  a  very  pleasing  measure,  and  much  used,  both  in  so 
lemn  and  cheerful  subjects. 

3  The  third  kind  of  the  English  Anapaestic,  consists  of /oi*^. 
Anapaests.  fl 

May  I  govern  my  passions  with   absolute  BWfty  ;  " 

And  grow  wiser  and  better  as  life  wears  av^ay. 
This  measure  will  admit  of  a  short  syllable  at  the  end  :  as, 
On  the  warm  cheelf  of  yOuth,  smiles  and  roses  are  blending. 
The  preceding  are  the  different  kinds  of  the  principal  feet,  in 
their  more  simple  forms.     They  are  capable  of  numerous  varia- 
tions, by  the  intermixture  of  those  feet  with  each  other;  ?nd  bv 
the  admission  of  the  secondary  feet.  j^ 


•  Tersification.]  prosody.  17! 

We  have  observed,  that  English  verse  is  comr^oscd  of  feet 
formed  by  accent ;  and  that  when  the  accent  falls  on  vowels,  the 
feet  are  equivalent  to  those  formed  by  quantity.  That  the  stu- 
dent may  clearly  perceive  this  difference,  we  shall  produce  a 
specunen  of  each  kind. 

O'er  heaps  of  rCnns  stalk'd  the  stately  li'nd. 

Here  we  see  the  accent  is  upon  the  vowel  in  each  second  sylla- 
'  ble.     In  the  following  line,  we  shall  find  the  same  Iambic  move- 
ment, but  formed  by  accent  on  consonants,  except  the  last  syl- 
'able. 

Then  rustling,  crackling,  crashing  thunder  down. 

Here  the  time  of  the  short  accented  syllables,  is  compensated 
by  £t  short  pause,  at  the  end  of  each  word  to  which  they  belong. 

We  now  proceed  to  show  the  manner  in  which  poetry  is  va- 
ried and  improved,  by  the  admission  of  secondary  feet  into  its 
composition. 

Murmuring,  and  with  him  fled  the  shades  of  night. 

The  first  foot  here  is  a  Dactyl ;  the  rest  are  Iambics. 
O'er  many  a  frozen,  many  a  fiery  Alp. 

This  line  contains  three  Amphibrachs  mixed  with  Iambics. 
Innumerable  before  th'  Almighty's  throne. 

Here,  in  the  second  foot,  we  find  a  Tribrach. 

See  the  bold  youth  strain  up  the  threat'ning  steep. 

In  this  line,  the  first  foot  is  a  Trochee  ;  the  second  a  genuine 
Spondee  by  quantity  ;  the  third  a  Spondee 4)y  accent. 

In  the  following  line,  the  first  foot  is  a  Pyrrhic,  the  second  a 
Spondee. 

That  on  wfeak  wings  from  far  pursues  your  flight. 

From  the  preceding  view  of  English  versification,  we  may 
see  what  a  copious  stock  of  materials  it  possesses.  For  we  are 
not  only  allowed  the  use  of  all  the  ancient  poetic  feet,  in  our  he- 
roic measure,  but  wo  have,  as  before  observed,  duplicates  of 
each,  agreeing  in  movement,  though  diflTering  in  measure,*  and 
which  make  diflTerent  impressions  on  the  ear ;  an  opulence  pe- 
culiar to  our  language,  and  which  may  be  the  source  of  a  bound- 
less variety. 

Of  Poetical  Pauses. 

There  are  two  sorts  of  pauses,  one  for  sense,  ann  one  tor  me- 
lody, perfectly  distinct  from  each  other.  The  former  may  bo 
called  senteniiaU  the  latter  harmonic  pauses. 

The  sentential  pauses  are  those  which  are  known  to  us  by  tht> 
name  of  stops,  and  which  have  names  given  them  ;  as  the  comma, 
semicolon,  colon,  and  period. 

The  harmonic  pauses  may  be  subdivided  into  \\\q  final  pau&e, 
and  the  cazsitral  pause.  These  sometimes  coincide  with  the  sen- 
tential pause,  sometimes  have  an  independent  state,  that  is,  exist 
where  there  is  no  stop  in  the  sense. 

*  iVIovement  and  measure  are  thus  distinguKshed.  Movement  expresses  tho 
proj^ressive  order  of  sounds,  whether  from  strong  to  weak,  from  long  to  short, 
9f  vice  versa.  J^leasure  signifies  the  proportion  of  time,  hoth  in  sounds  and  pauses. 


172  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR.      [Versificatiojj 

The  final  pause  takes  place  at  the  end  of  the  line,  closes  tli« 
verse,  and  marks  the  measure  :  the  caesural  divides  it  into  e([w 
or  unequal  parts. 

The  final  pause  ])reserves  the  melody,  without  interfering  wj 

the  sense.  For  the  pause  itself  perfectly  marks  tlie  hound  of  tlie 
metre ;  and  being  made  only  hy  a  suspension  of  the  voice,  not  by 
any  change  of  note,  it  can  never  affect  the  sense.  This  is  not 
the  only  advantage  gained  to  numbers,  by  this  final  pause  or  stop 
of  suspension.  It  also  prevents  that  monotony,  that  sameness  of 
note  at  the  end  of  lines,  which,  however  pleasing  to  a  rude,  is 
disgusting  to  a  deHcate  ear.  For  as  this  final  pause  has  ho  pe- 
culiar note  of  its  own,  but  always  takes  that  which  belongs  to  the 
preceding  word,  it  changes  continually  with  the  matter,  ami  is 
as  various  as  the  sense. 

It  is  the  final  pause  which  alone,  on  many  occasions,  marks  the 
difference  between  prose  and  verse  ;  which  will  be  evident  from 
the  following  arrangement  of  a  few  poetical  lilies. 

"Of  man's  first  disobedience,  and  the  fruit  of  that  forbidden 
tree,  whose  mortal  taste  brought  death  into  the  world,  and  all 
our  wo,  with  loss  of  Eden,  till  one  greater  man  restore  us,  and 
regain  the  blissful  seat,  sing  heavenly  muse  !" 

A  stranger  to  the  poem  would  not  easily  discover  that  this  was 
verse  ;  but  would  take  it  for  poetical  prose.  By  properly  adjusting 
the  final  pause,we  shall  restore  the  passage  to  its  true  state  of  verse 
Of  man's  first  disobedience,  and  the  fruit 
Of  that  forbidden  tree,  whose  mortal  taste 
Brought  death  into  the  world,  and  all  our  wo, 
With  loss  of  Eden,  till  one  greater  man 
Restore  us,  and  regain  the  blissful  seat, 
Sing,  heavenly  muse ! 
These  examples  show  the  necessity  of  reading  blank  verse,  m 
euch  a  manner,  as  to  make  every  line  sensible  to  the  ear ;  for 
what  is  the  use  of  melody,  or  for  what  end  has  the  poet  composed 
in  verse,  if,  in  reading  his  lines,  we  suppress  his  numbers,  by 
omitting  the  final  pause ;.  and  degrade  them,  by  our  pronuncia- 
t'on,  into  mere  prose  ? 

The  Caesura  is  commonly  on  the  fourth,  fifth,  or  sixth  syllable 
of  heroic  verse. 

On  the  fourth  syllable,  or  at  the  end  of  the  second  foot:  as, 
The  silver  eeK'  in  shining  vohnnes  roll'd, 
The  yellow  carp^^  in  scales  be(lrop]>'d  with  gold.  . 
On  the  fifth  syllable,  or  in  the  middle  of  the  third  foot:  as, 
Round  broken  cohunns''  clasping  ivy  twinVl, 
O'er  heaps  of  ruin''  stalk'd  the  stately  hind. 
On  the  sixth  syllable,  or  at  the  end  of  the  third  foot :  as, 
Oh  say  what  stranger  cause''  yet  unexplor'd. 
Could  make  a  gentle  belle"  reject  a  lord. 
A  line  may  be  divided  into  three  portions,  by  two  cofsuras: 
Outstretch'd  he  lay"  on  the  cold  ground"  and  oft" 
Look'd  up  to  heav'n. 


^ 


I 


Versificatiow.]  prosody.  173 

There  is  another  mode  of  dividing  lines,  well  suited  to  the  na- 
t'jre  of  the  couplet,  by  introducing  semi -pauses,  which  divide  the 
i   fine  into  four  pauses.  This  semi-pause  may  be  called  a  deini-ccesura. 
The  following  lines  admit  of,  and  exemplify  it. 

PGlows^  while  he  reads''  but  trembles'  as  he  writes. 
Reason'  the  card"  but  passion'  is  the  gale. 
Rides^  in  the  whirlwind"  and  directs'  the  storm. 

Of  Mtlodijy  Harmony^  and  Expression. 

Having  shown  the  general  nature  of  feet  and  pauses,  the  con- 
r  tuent  pans  of  verse,  we  shall  now  point  out,  more  particularly, 
t.<«ir  use  and  importance. 

-  Melody,  harmony,  and  expression,  are  the  three  great  objects 
of  poetic  numbers.  By  melody,  is  meant,  a  pleasing  effect  pro- 
duced on  the  ear,  from  an  apt  arrangement  of  the  constituent 
parts  of  verse,  according  to  the  laws  orf  measure  and  movement. 
By  harmony,  an  effect  produced  by  an  action  of  the  mind,  in  com- 
paring the  different  members  of  a  verse  with  each  other,  and 
perceiving  a  due  and  beautiful  proportion  between  them.  By 
expression,  such  a  choice  and  arrangement  of  the  constituent 
parts  of  verse,  as  serve  to  enforce  and  illustrate  the  thought  oi- 
the  sentiment. 

We  shall  consider  each  of  these  three  objects  in  versification, 
both  with  respect  to  the  feet  and  the  pauses. 

1st.  With  regard  to  melody. 

From  the  examples  which  we  have  given  of  verses  composed 
in  all  the  principal  feet,  it  is  evident  that  a  considerable  portion 
of  melody  is  found  in  each  of  them,  though  in  different  degrees. 
Verses  made  up  of  pure  Iambics  have  an  excellent  melody. 

That  the  final  and  cajsural  pauses  contribute  to  melody,  cannot 
be  doubted  by  any  person  who  reviews  the  instances  which  we 
have  already  given  of  those  pauses.  To  form  hues  of  the  first 
melody,  the  caesura  must  be  at  the  end  of  the  second,  or  of  the 
ttiird  foot,  or  in  the  middle  of  the  third. 

2d,  With  respect  to  harmony. 

Verses  composed  of  Iambics  have  indeed  a  fine  harmony  ;  but 
as  the  stress  of  the  voice,  in  repeating  such  verses,  is  always  in 
the  same  places,  that  is,  on  every  second  syllable,  such  a  unifor- 
mity would  disgust  the  ear  in  a  long  succession ;  and  therefore 
such  changes  were  sought  for,  as  might  introduce  the  pleasure 
of  variety,  without  prejudice  to  melody ;  or  which  might  even 
contribute  to  its  improvement.  Of  this  nature  was  the  introduc 
tion  of  the  Trochee,  to  form  the  first  foot  of  an  heroic  verse:  as, 
Favours  to  none,  to  all  she  smiles  extends, 
O'ft  she  rejects,  but  never  once  offends. 

Each  of  these  lines  begins  with  a  Trochee ;  the  remaining 
feet  are  in  the  Iambic  movement.  In  the  following  line  of  the 
same  movement,  the  fourth  foot  is  a  Trochee. 

All  these  our  notions  vain,  sees  and  derides. 
The  next  change  admitted  ior  the  sake  of  variety,  without 

P  2 


i 

LtG 


174  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR.     [Versificatjo 

prejudioe  to  melody,  is  the  intermixture  of  Pyrrhics  and  Spon^ 
<lees  ;  in  whicl),  two  impressions  in  the  one  foot  make  up  for  th< 
want  of  one  in  the  other;  and  two  long  syllables  compensate 
two  short  ones,  so  as  to  make  the  sum  of  the  quantity  of  the  two 
feet,  equal  to  two  Iambics. 

On  the  green  bank  to  look  uito  the  clear 
Smooth  lake  that  to  me  seem'd  another  sky. 
Stood  rfd'd  stood  vast,  infinitude  confin'd. 
The  next  variety  admitted  is  that  of  the  Amphibrach. 

Which  many  a  bard  had  chaunted  many  a  day. 
In  this  line,  w^e  find  that  two  of  the  feet  are  amphibrachs;  and 
three,  Iambics. 

We  have  before  shown  that  the  caesura  improves  the  melody 
of  verse;  and  we  shall  now  speak  of  its  other  more  important 
office,  that  of  being  the  chief  source  of  harmony  in  numbers. 

Tlie  first  and  lowest  perception  of  harmony,  by  means  of  tho 
caesura,  arises  from  comparing  two  members  of  the  same  line 
with  each  other,  divided  in  the  manner  to  be  seen  in  the  in- 
stances before  mentioned ;  because  the  beauty  of  proj)ortion  in 
the  members,  according  to  each  of  these  divisions,  is  founded  in 
nature  ;  being  as  one  to  two — two  to  three — or  three  to  two. 

The  next  degree  arises  from  comparing  the  members  of  a  cou 
plet,  or  two  contiguous  lines:  as. 

See  the  bold  youth^'  strain  up  the  threatening  steep, 
Rush  through  the  thickets''  down  the  valleys  sweep 
Here  we  find   the  caesura  of  tlie  first  line,  at  the  end  of  the 
second  foot ;  and  in  the  middle  of  the  third  foot,  in  the  last  line. 
Hang  o'er  their  coursers'  heads''  with  eager  speed. 
And  earth  rolls  back"  beneath  the  flying  steed. 
In  this  couplet,  the  Caesura  is  at  the  end  of  the  third  foot,  in 
the  first  line  ;  and  of  the  second,  in  the  latter  line. 

The  next  perception  of  harmony  arises  from  comparing  a 
greater  number  of  lines,  and  observing  the  relative  proportion  of 
the  couplets  to  each  other,  in  point  of  similarity  and  diversity,  as  : 
Thy  forests  Windsor"  and  thy  green  retreats. 
At  once  the  monarch's"  and  the  muse's  seats, 
Invite  my  lays."     Be  present  Sylvan  maids, 
Unlock  your  springs"  and  open  all  your  shades 
Not  haif  so  swift"  the  trembling  doves  can  fly, 
When  the  fierce  eagle"  cleaves  the  liquid  sky ; 
Not  half  so  swiftly"  the  fierce  eagle  moves, 
When  through  the  clouds"  he  drives  the  trembhng  doves. 
In  this  way,  the  comparison  of  lines  variously  apportioned  by 
the  diflferent  seats  of  the  three  caesuras,  may  be  the  source  of  a 
great  variety  of  harmony,  consistent  with  the  finest  melody 
This  is  still  increased  by  the  introduction  of  two  caesuras,  ana 
much  more  by  that  of  semi-pauses.     The  semi-pauses  double 
every  where  the  terms  of  comparison  ;  give  a  more  distinct  view 
of  the  whole  and  the  i)arts  j  aflTord  new  proportions  of  measure- 


'^ERsiFicAtioN.]  PROSODY.  175 

sttent,  and  an  ampler  scope  for  diversity  and  equality,  those 
oources  of  beauty  in  harmony. 

Warms'  in  the  sun''  refreshes'  in  the  breeze, 
Glows'  in  the  stars"  and  blossoms'  in  the  trees  ; 
Lives'  through  all  life"  extends'  through  all  extent, 
Spreads'  undivided"  operates'  unspent. 
3d,  The  last  object  in  versification  regards  expression. 
When  men  express  their  sentiments  by  words,  they  naturally 
fall  into  that  sort  of  movement  of  the  voice,  which  is  consonant  to 
that  produced  by  the  emotion  in  the  mind  ;  and  the  Dactylic  or 
Anapaestic,  the  Trochaic,  Iambic,  or  Spondaic,  prevails  even  in 
connnon  discourse,  according  to  the  diflferent  nature  of  the  sen- 
timents expressed.     To  imitate  nature,  therefore,  the  poet,  in 
arranging  his  words  hi  the  artificial  composition  of  ver^c,  must 
take  care  to  make  the  movement  correspond  to  the  sentiment, 
by  the  proper  use  of  the  several  kinds  of  feet:  and  this  is  the 
first  and  most  general  source  of  expression  in  numbers. 

That  a  judicious  management  of  the  feet  and  pauses,  may  be 
peculiarly  expressive  of  particular  operations  and  sentiments, 
will  sufficiently  appear  to  the  learner,  by  a  few  select  examples 
under  each  ofjhose  heads. 

In  the  following  instance,  the  vast  dimensions  of  Satan  are 
shown  by  an  uncommon  succession  of  long  syllables,  which  de- 
tain us  to  survey  the  huge  arch  fiend,  in  his  fixed  posture. 
So  stretch'd  out  huge  in  length  the  arch  fiend  lay. 
The  next  example  affords  instances  of  the  power  of  a  Trochee 
beginning  a  line,  when  succeeded  by  an  Iambus, 

and  sheer  within 

Lights  on  lus  feet:  as  when  a  prowhng  wolf 
Leaps  o'er  the  fence  with  ease  into  the  fold. 
The  Trochee  which  begins  the  line  shows  Satan  in  the  act  o 
lighting :  the  Iambus  that  follows,  fixes  him — "  Lights  on  his  feet." 
The  same  artifice,  in  the  beginning  of  the  next  line,  makes  us 
see  the  wolf—"  leap  o'er  the  fence." — But  as  the  mere  act  of 
leaping  over   the   fence,  is  not  the   only  circumstance  to  be 
attended  to,  but  also  the  facility  with  which  it  is  done,  this  is 
strongly  marked,  not  only  by  the  smooth  foot  which  follows — 
**  with  ease." — itself  very  expressive,  but  likewise  by  a  Pyrrhic 
preceding  the  last  foot — "  into  the  fold." — which  indeed  carries 
the  wolf— ^'  with  case  into  the  fold." 

The  following  instances  show  the  effects  produced  by  caesuras, 
so  placed  as  to  divide  the  line  into  very  unequal  portions :  such 
as  that  after  the  first,  and  before  the  last  semipede. 

thus  with  the  year 

Seasons  return,  but  not  to  me  returns 
Day"  or  the  sweet  approach  of  even  or  morn. 
Here  the  caesura  after  the  first  semipede  Day^  fx>m  ^is  udcix 
pectedly,  and  forcibly  impresses  the  imagination  »  «  Mf    f  h» 
ness  of  the  author's  loss,  the  loss  of  sight. 


n 


I 


17(5  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 

No  sooner  had  tli'  Almi<^hty  ceas'd,  but  all 

The  multitude  of  angels,  witli  a  shout 

Loud^'  as  from  numbers  without  number'^  sweet 

As  from  blest  voices  uttering  joy.— 

There  is  something  very  striking  in  this  uncommon  caesura, 

-which  suddenly  stops  the  reader,  to  reflect  on  the  importance  o! 

a  particular  word. 
We  shall  close  the  subject,  with  an  example  containing  the  united 

powers  of  many  of  the  principles  which  have  been  explained. 
Dire  was  the  tossing"^^  deep  the  groans''  Despair'^ 
Tended  the  sick''  busiest  from  coiich  to  coilcl/ 
And  over  them  triumphant  death"'  his  dart'' 
Shook"'  but  delay'd  to  strike. 
Many  of  the  rules  and  observations  respecting  Prosody,  are 

taken  from  "Sheridan's  Art  of  Reading  ;"  to  which  book  the 

Compiler  refers  the  ingenious  student,  for  more  extensive  infor 

mation  on  the  subject. 


PUNCTUATION.* 

Punctuation  is  the  art  of  dividing  a  written  composition 
into  sentences,  or  parts  of  sentences,  by  points  or  stops,  for 
the  purpose  of  marking  the  different  pauses  which  the 
sense,  and  an  accurate  pronunciation  require. 

The  Comma  represents  the  shortest  pause  ;  the  Semico- 
lon, a  pause  double  that  of  the  comma  ;  the  Colon,  double 
that  of  the  semicolon ;  and  the  Period,  double  that  of  the 
colon. 

The  precise  quantity  or  duration  of  each  pause,  cannot  be 
defined  ;  for  it  varies  with  the  time  of  the  whole.  The  same 
composition  may  be  rehearsed  in  a  quicker  or  a  slower  time  ;  but 
the  proportion  between  the  pauses  should  be  ever  invariable. 

In  order  mors  clearly  to  determine  the  proper  application  of 
the  points,  we  must  distinguish  between  an  imperfect  jihrase^  a 
simple  sentence,  and  a  compound  sentence. 

An  imperfect  phrase  contains  no  assertion,  or  does  not  amount 
to  a  proposition  or  sentence  :  as,  **  Therefore  ;  in  haste  ;  studi- 
ous of  praise." 

A  simple  sentence  has  but  one  subject,  and  one  finite  verb, 
ex[)ressed  or  implied  :  as,  "  Temperance  preserves  health." 

A  compound  sentence  has  more  than  one  subject,  or  one  finite 

*  As  punctuation  is  intended  to  aid  both  the  sense,  and  the  pronunciation  o/ 
a  sentence,  it  couid  not  have  been  exclusively  discussed  under  the  part  of  Syn 
lax,  or  of  Prosody.     The  nature  of  the  subject,  its  extent  and  importance,  an', 
ihe  grammatical  knowledge  which  it  presupposes,  have  induced  us  to  make  it  a 
distinct  and  subsequent  arlicJe. 


Comma.]  PUNCTUATION.  177 

verb,  either  expressed  or  understood ;  or  it  consists  of  two  or 
more  simple  sentences  connected  together :  as,  **  Good  nature 
mends  and  beautifies  all  objects;"  **  Virtue  refines  the  aflfections, 
but  vice  debases  them." 

In  a  sentence,  the  subject  and  the  verb,  or  either  of  them, 
may  be  accompanied  with  several  adjuncts :  as,  the  object,  the 
end,  the  circumstance  oftimo,  place,  manner,  and  the  like:  and 
the  subject  or  verb  may  be  either  immediately  connected  with 
them,  or  mediately  ;  that  is,  by  being  connected  with  something 
which  is  connected  with  some  other,  and  so  on  :  as,  **The  mind, 
unoccupied  with  useful  knowledge,  becomes  a  magazine  of  tri 
Acs  and  follies." 

Members  of  sentences  may  be  divided  into  simple  and  com 
t)ound  members.     See  page  96, 

CHAPTER  L     Of  the  Comma. 
The  Comma  usually  sepai:ates  those  parts  of  a  sentence, 
which,  though  very  closely  connected  in  sense  and  con- 
struction, require  a  pause  between  them. 

Ride  L  With  respect  to  a  simple  sentence,  the  several  words 
of  which  it  consists  have  so  near  a  relation  to  each  other,  that,  in 
general,  lao  points  are  r<equisite,  except  a  full  stop  at  the  end 
of  it:  as,  "The  fear  of  the  Lord  is  the  beginning  of  wisdom." 
"Every  part  of  matter  swarms  with  hving  creatures." 

A  simple  sentence,  however,  when  it  is  a  long  one,  and  the 
nominative  case  is  accompanied  with  inseparable  adjuncts,  may 
admit  of  a  pause  immediately  before  the  verb  ;  as,  "  The  good 
taste  of  the  present  age,  has  not  allowed  us  to  neglect  the  culti- 
vation of  the  Enghsh  language :"  "  To  be  totally  indiflferent  to 
praise  or  censure,  is  a  real  defect  in  character." 

Rule  IL  When  the  connexion  of  the  different  parts  of  a  sim- 
ple sentence  is  interrupted  by  an  imperfect  phrase,  a  comma  is 
usually  introduced  before  the  beginning,  and  at  the  end  of  this 
phrase  :  as,  "  T  remember,  with  gratitude,  his  goodness  to  me :" 
'  His  work  is,  in  many  respects,  very  imperfect.  It  is,  therefore, 
not  much  approved."  But  when  those  interruptions  are  slight  and 
unimportant,  the  comma  is  better  omitted:  as,  "Flattery  is  cer- 
tainly pernicious  ;"  "There  is  surely  a  pleasure  in  beneficence." 

In  the  generality  of  compound  seJitences,  there  is  frequent  oc- 
casion for  commas.  This  will  appear  froia  the  following  rules; 
tf<*m€  of  which  apply  to  simple,  as  well  as  to  compound  sentences. 

Rule  III.  When  two  or  more  nouns  occur  in  the  same  con- 
struction, they  are  parted  by  a  comma  :  as,  "Reason,  virtue,  an- 
swer one  grftat  aim  :"  "  The  husband,  wife,  and  children,  sufl?er- 
jd  extremely  :"*    "  They  took  away  their  furniture,  clothes,  and 

*  As  a  considei-al)le  pause  in  pronunciation,  is  necessary  between  the  last 
oun  and  the  v«rb,  a  comma  should  be  inserted  to  denote  it.  But  as  no  pause 
i  allowable  between  the  last  adjective  and  the  noun,  under  Rule  IV.  the  coin- 
Ut  IS  ther«  properly  oinitterL     See  WALKER's  ELements  ofFJocution. 


178  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR.  [Comm!^| 

gtock  in  trade  :"  *'  He  is  alternately  supported  by  his  father,  his 
uncle,  and  his  elder  brother." 

From  this  rule  there  is  mostly  an  exception,  with  regard  to 
two  nouns  closely  connected  by  a  conjunction  :  as,  "  Virtue  and 
vice  form  a  strong  contrast  to  each  other:'*  *'  Libertines  call  re- 
ligion bigotry  or  superstition;"  "There  is  a  natural  difference 
between  merit  and  demerit,  virtue  and  vice,  wisdom  and  folly/' 
But  if  the  parts  connected  are  not  short,  a  comma  may  be  in- 
serted, though  the  conjunction  is  expressed:  as,  "Romances 
may  be  said  to  be  miserable  rhapsodies,  or  dangerous  incentives 
to  evil ;"  "  Intemperance  destroys  the  strength  of  our  bodies,  and 
the  vigour  of  our  minds." 

Mule  IF.  Two  or  more  adjectives  belonging  to  the  same  sub 
stantive  are  likewise  separated  by  commas:  as,  "Plain,  honest 
truth,  wants  no  artificial  covering;"  "  David  was  a  brave,  wisi , 
and  pious  man;"  "A  woman,  gentle,  sensible,  well-educate<i. 
and  religious  ;"  "  The  most  innocent  pleasures  are  the  sweetest, 
the  most  rational,  the  most  affecting,  and  the  most  lasting." 

But  two  adjectives,  immediately  connected  by  a  conjunction, 
are  not  separated  by  a  comma  :  as,  "  True  worth  is  modest  and 
retired  ;"  "Truth  is  fair  and  artless,  simple  anrf  sincere,  uniform 
and  consistent."  "  We  must  be  wise  or  foolish  ;  there  is  no 
medium." 

Mule  V,  Two  or  more  verbs,  having  the  same  nominative  case, 
and  immediately  following  one  another,  are  also  separated  by 
commas :  as,  "  Virtue  supports  in  adversity,  moderates  in  pros- 
perity ;*'  "  In  a  letter,  we  may  advise,  exhort,  comfort,  request, 
and  discuss." 

Two  verbs  immediately  connected  by  a  conjunction,  are  an 
exception  to  the  above  rule :  as,  "  The  study  of  natural  history 
expands  a?i(/ elevates  the  mind  ;"  "  W^hether  we  eat  or  diink,  la- 
bour or  sleep,  we  should  be  moderate." 

Two  or  more  participles,  are  subject  to  a  similar  rule,  and  except 
tion:  as,  **A  man,  fearing,  serving,  and  loving  his  Creator;" 
*^  He  was  happy  in  being  loved,  esteemed,  and  respected  ;"  "  By 
being  admired  and  flattered,  we  are  often  corrupted." 

Mule  VJ.  Two  or  more  adverbs  immediately  succeeding  one 
another,  mvist  be  separated  by  commas :  as,  ''  We  are  fearfully, 
wonderfully  framed  ;"  "  Success  generally  depends  on  acting  pru- 
dently, steadily,  and  vigorously,  m  what  we  undertake." 

But  when  two  adverbs  are  joined  by  a  conjunction,  they  are 
not  parted  by  the  comma :  as,  ''  Some  men  sin  deliberately  and 
presumptuously  ;"  "  There  is  no  middle  state  ;  we  must  live  virtu 
ously  or  vitiously.*' 

Mule  VIL  When  participles  are  followed  by  something  thai 
depends  on  them,  they  are  generally  separated  from  the  rest  of 
the  sentence  by  a  comma:  as,  "The  king  approving  of  the  plan, 
put  it  in  execution  ;"  "  His  talents,  formed  for  great  enterprises^ 
could  not  fail  of  rendering  him  conspicuous ;"  "  All  mankind  com- 
pose om  family,  assembled  under  the  eye  of  one  common  Father.' 


Comma,]  PUNCTUATION.  179 

Rule  VIIL  When  a  conjunction  is  divided  by  a  phrase  or  sen 
tence  from  the  verb  to  w^hich  it  belongs,  such  intervening  phrase 
has  usually  a  comma  at  each  extremity  :  as,  "  They  set  out  early, 
c?iJ,  before  the  close  of  the  day,  arrived  at  the  destined  place." 

Rule  IX.  Expressions  in  a  direct  address,  are  separated  from 
the  rest  of  the  sentence  by  commas:  as,  "  My  son,  give  me  thy 
heart :"  "  1  am  obliged  to  you,  my  friends,  for  your  many  favours." 

Rtile  X.  The  case  absolute,  and  the  infinitive  mood  absolute, 
are  separated  by  commas  from  the  body  of  the  sentence:  as, 
"  His  father  dying,  he  succeeded  to  the  estate  ;"  "  At  length,  their 
ministry  performed,  and  race  well  run,  they  left  the  w^orld  in 
peace  ;"  "  To  confess  the  truth,  I  was  much  in  fault." 

Rule  XL  Nouns  in  apposition,  that  is,  nouns  added  to  other 
nouns  in  the  same  case,  by  way  of  explication  or  illustration, 
when  accompanied  with  adjuncts,  are  set  off  by  commas:  as, 
**  Paul,  the  apostle  of  the  Gentiles,  was  eminent  for  his  zeal  an<l 
knowledge;"  ''The  butterfiyj^  child  of  the  summer,  flutters  in 
the  sun." 

But  if  such  nouns  are  single,  or  only  form  a  proper  name,  they 
are  not  divided  :  as,  "  Paul  the  apostl-o  ;"  "  The  emperor  Anto- 
ninus wrote  an  excellent  book." 

Rule  XII.  Simple  members  of  sentences  connected  by  compa- 
ratives, are  for  the  most  part  distinguished  by  a  comma:  as,  ".^5 
the  hart  panteth  after  the  water  brooks,  so  doth  my  soul  pant  af- 
ter thee  ;"  '''-Better  is  a  dinner  of  herbs  with  love,  than  a  stalled 
ox  and  hatred  with  it."  ^ 

If  the  members  in  comparative  sentences  are  short,  the  comma 
is,  in  general,  better  omitted:  as,  "  How  much  hetter  is  it  to  get 
wisdom  than  gold  I"  "  Mankind  act  oftener  from  caprice  than  rea- 
son." 

Rule  XIIL  When  words  are  placed  in  oi)position  to  each 
other,  or  with  some  marked  variety,  they  require  to  be  distin- 
guished by  a  comma  :  as, 

"  Tho'  deep,  yet  clear  ;  tho'  gentle,  yet  not  dull ; 
Strong,  without  rage;  without  overflowing,  full." 
*'  Good  men,  in  this  frail,  imperfect  state,  are  often  found,  not 
only  in  union  ivith,  but  in  opposition  to,  the  views  and  conduct 
of  one  another." 

Sometimes  when  the  word  with  which  the  last  preposition  agrees, 
is  single,  it  is  better  to  omit  the  comma  before  it :  as,  "  Many 
states  were  in  alliance  with,  and  under  the  protection  q/'Rome." 

The  same  rule  and  restrictions  must  be  applied  when  two  or 
more  nouns  refer  to  the  same  preposition ;  as,  "  He  was  com- 
posed both  under  the  threatening,  and  at  the  approach  of  a  cruel 
and  lingering  death  ;"  "  He  was  not  only  the  king,  but  the  fa- 
ther o/his  people." 

Rule  XIF,  A  remarkable  expression,  or  a  short  observation, 
Bomewhat  in  the  manner  of  a  quotation,  may  be  properly  marked 
with  a  comma :  as,  *'  It  hurts  a  man's  pride  to  say,  I  do  not 
ki.ow;"  ''Plutarch  calls  lying,  the  vice  of  slaves." 


IgO  ENGLISH   GRAMMAR.  [Comma 

Rule  XV.  Relative  pronouns  are  con»ective  words,  and  gene- 
rally admit  a  comma  before  them  :  as,  '*  He  preaches  sublimely, 
who  lives  a  sober,  righteous,  and  pious  life  ;"  '^^  There  is  no  charm 
in  the  female  sex,  which  can  supply  the  place  of  virtue." 

But  when  two  members,  or  phrases,  are  closely  connected  by 
a  relative,  restraining  the  general  notion  of  the  antecedent  to  a 
particular  sense,  the  comma  should  be  omitted :  as,  "  Self-denial 
is  the  sacrifice  which  virtue  must  make ;"  "  A  man  who  is  of  a 
detracting  spirit,  will  misconstrue  the  most  innocent  words  that 
can  be  put  together."  In  the  latter  example,  the  assertion  is  no! 
of"  a  man  in  general,"  but  of  "  a  man  wh6  is  of  a  detracting 
spirit  ;'*  and  therefore  they  should  not  be  separated. 

The  fifteenth  rule  applies  equally  to  cases  in  which  the  relative 
is  not  expressed,  but  understood  :  as, ''  It  was  from  piety,  warm 
and  unaffected,  that  his  morals  derived  strength.^'  *'  This  senti- 
ment, habitual  and  strong,  influenced  his  whole  conduct."  In  both 
of  these  examples,  the  relative  and  verb  ivhich  wcls,  are  understood. 

Rule  XVL  A  simple  member  of  a  sentence,  contained  with- 
m  another,  or  following  another,  must  be  distinguished  by  the 
comma :  as,  *'  To  improve  time  whilst  we  are  blessed  with  health, 
will  smooth  the  bed  of  sickness."  ^^  Very  often,  while  we  are 
complaining  of  the  vanity,  and  the  evils  of  human  life,  we  make 
that  vanity,  and  we  increase  those  evils." 

If,  however,  the  members  succeeding  each  other,  are  yery 
closely  connected,  the  comma  is  unnecessary:  as,  "Revelation 
tells  «s  how  we  may  attain  iiappiness." 

When  a  verb  in  the  infinitive  mood,  follows  its  governing 
verb,  with  several  words  between  them,  those  words  should 
generally  have  a  comma  at  the  end  of  them  ;  as,  "  It  ill  becomes 
good  and  wise  men,  to  oppose  and  degrade  one  another." 

Several  verbs  in  the  infinitive  mood,  having  a  common  depen- 
dence, and  succeeding  one  another,  are  also  divided  by  commas  : 
as,  "  To  relieve  the  indigent,  to  comfort  the  afflicted,  to  protect 
the  innocent,  to  reward  the  deserving,  are  humane  and  noble 
employments." 

Rule  XVIL  When  the  verb  to  he  is  followed  by  a  verb  in  the 
infinitive  mood,  which,  by  transposition,  might  be  made  the  nomi- 
native case  to  it,  the  former  is  generally  separated  from  the  latter 
verb,  by  a  comma :  as,  "  The  most  obvious  remedy  is,  to  with- 
draw from  all  associations  with  bad  men."  "  The  first  and  most 
obvious  remedy  against  the  infection  is,  to  withdraw  from  all 
associations  with  bad  men." 

Rule  XyilL  When  adjuncts  or  circumstances  are  of  impor- 
tance, and  often  when  the  natural  order  of  them  is  inverted, 
they  may  be  set  off  by  commas:  as,  "  Virtue  must  be  formed 
and  supported,  not  by  unfrequent  acts,  but  by  daily  and  repeated 
exertions."  "  Vices,  hke  shadows,  towards  the  evening  of  life, 
grow^  great  and  monstrous."  "  Our  interests  are  interwoven  by 
tVneads  innumerable  ;"  "  By  threads  innumerable,  our  interests 
are  interwoven." 


S£MicoLo>.]  PUNCTUATION.  181 

Rule  XIX,  Where  a  verb  is  understood,  a  comma  may  often 
be  properly  introduced.  This  is  a  general  rule  which,  besides 
comprising  some  of  the  preceding  rules,  will  apply  to  many  cases 
not  determined  by  any  of  them  :  as,  "  From  law  arises  security; 
from  security,  curiosity  ;  from  curiosity,  knowledge."  In  this 
example,  the  verb  "arises"  is  understood  before  "  curiosity*' 
and  "knowledge;''  at  which  words  a  considerable  pause  is 
necessary. 

Ride  XX.  The  words,  nay,  so,  hence,  again,  first,  secondly,  for 
merly,  now^  lazily,  once  more,  above  all,  on  the  contrary,  in  the  next 
vlace,  in  short,  and  all  other  words  and  phrases  of  the  same  kind, 
Hiust  generally  be  separated  from  the  context  by  a  comma:  as, 
*  remember  thy  best  and  first  friend ;  yb7*77ier?3/,  the  supporter  of 
chy  infancy,  and  the  gviide  of  thy  childhood  ;  noiv,  the  guardian 
of  thj'  youth,  and  the  hope  of  thy  coming  years."  "  He  feared 
tvcnt,  ^.e?icc,  he  overvalued  riches."  "This  conduct  may  heal 
{he  diiferonce,  fiay,  it  may  constantly  prevent  any  in  future." 
'^  Finally,  I  shall  only  repeat  what  has  been  often  justly  said." 
**  If  the  spring  j)ut  forth  no  blossoms,  in  summer  there  will  be  no 
beauty,  and  in  autumn,  no  fruit ;  so,  if  youth  be  trifled  avray 
without  improvement,  riper  years  may  be  contemptible,  and  old 
age  miserable. 

In  many  of  the  foregoing  ritles  and  examples,  great  regard 
must  be  paid  to  the  length  of  the  clauses,  and  the  proportion 
which  they  bear  to  one  another.  An  attention  to  the  sense  of 
any  passage,  and  to  the  clear,  easy  communication  of  it,  will, 
it  is  presumed,  with  the  aid  of  the  procedmg  rulesj  enable  the 
student  to  adjust  the  proper  pauses,  and  the  places  for  inserting 
the  commas. 

CHAPTER  11.  Of  the  Semicolan. 
The  Semicolon  is  used  for  dividing  a  compound  sen* 
tcnce  into  two  or  more  parts,  not. so  closely  connected  as 
those  wliich  are  separated  by  a  comma,  nor  yet  so  little 
dependent  on  each  other,  as  those  which  are  distinguished 
by  a  colon. 

The  Semicolon  is  sometimes  used,  when  the  preceding  member 
of  the  sentence  does  not  of  itself  give  a  complete  sense,  but  de- 
pends on  the  following  clause  :  and  sometimes  when  the  sense 
of  that  member  would  be  complete  without  the  concluding  one: 
as  in  the  following  instances:  "As  the.  desire  of  approbation, 
vvhen  it  works  according  to  reason,  improves  the  amiable  part 
of  our  species  in  every  thing  that  is  la-udable  ;  eo  nothing  is  more 
destructive  to  them  when  it  ifi  governed  by  vanity  and  folly." 

*'  Experience  teaches  us,  that  an  entire  retreat  frotli  worldly 
affairs,  is  not  what  religion  requires ;  nor  does  it  even  onjoin  a 
long  retreat  from  them." 

"  Straws  swim  upon  the  surface  :  but  pearls  lie  at  the  bottom.' 

**  Philosophers  assert,  that  Nature  is  unlimited  in  her  opera 


182  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR.  [CoLOt*. 

tions;  thai  ubo  has  inexhaustible  treasures  in  reserve ;  that  know- 
ledge will  always  be  progressive  ;  and  that  all  future  generation* 
will  continue  to  nnake  discoveries,  of  which  we  have  not  the- 
least  idea." 

CHAPTER  III.     Of  the  Colon. 
The  Colon  is  used  to  divide  a  sentence  into  two  or  more 
parts,  less  connected  than  those  which  are  separated  by  a 
semicolon ;   but  not  so  independent  as  separate  distinct 
sentences. 

The  Colon  may  be  properly  applied  in  the  three  following  cases* 

1  When  a  member  of  a  sentence  is  complete  in  itself,  but  fol- 
lowed by  some  supplemental  remark,  or  further  illustration  oi 
the  subject :  as,  "  Nature  felt  her  inability  to  extricate  herself 
from  the  consequences  of  guilt :  the  gospel  reveals  the  plan  of 
Divine  interposition  and  aid."  "  Nature  confessed  some  atone- 
ment to  be  necessary :  the  gospel  discovers  that  the  necessary 
atonement  is  made." 

2  When  several  semicolons  have  preceded,  and  a  still  greater 
pause  is  necessary,  in  order  to  mark  the  connecting  or  concluding 
sentiment:  as,  "A  divine  legislator,  uttering  his  voice  from 
heaven  ;  an  almighty  governor,  stretching  forth  his  arm  to  punish 
or  reward ;  informing  us  of  perpetual  rest  prepared  hereafter 
for  the  righteous;  and  of  indignation  and  wrath  awaiting  the 
wicked  :  these  are  the  considerations  which  overawe  the  world, 
which  support  integrity,  and  check  guilt." 

3  The  Colon  is  commonly  used  when  an  example,  aquotation» 
or  a  speech  is  introduced :  as,  "The  Scriptures  give  us  an  amia- 
ble  representation  of  the  Deity,  in  these  words :  *  God  is  love.'  '^' 

He  was  often  heard  to  say  :  *  I  h-^ve  done  with  the  world,  and  I 
am  willing  to  leave  it.'  "  "^ 

The  propriety  of  using  a  colon,  or  semicolon,  is  sometimes 
determined  by  a  conjunction's  being  expressed,  or  not  expressed  : 
as,  "Do  not  flatter  yourselves  with  the  hope  of  perfect  happi- 
ness :  there  is  no  such  thing  in  the  world.'*  "  Do  not  flatteif 
yourselves  with  the  hope  of  perfect  happiness ;  for  there  is  no 
such  thing  in  the  world." 

CHAPTER  IV.     Of  the  Period, 
When  a  sentence  is  complete  and  independent,  and  not 
connected  in  construction  with  the  following  sentence,  it 
IS  marked  with  a  Period. 

Some  sentences  are  independent  of  each  other,  both  in  their 
sense  and  construction  :  as,  "Fear  God.  Honour  the  king.  Have 
charity  towards  all  men."  Others  are  independent  only  in  their 
grammatical  construction :  as,  "The  Supreme  Being  changes  not, 
either  in  his  desire  to  promote  our  happiness,  or  in  the  plan  of 
his  administration.  One  light  always  shines  upon  us  from  above 
One  clear  and  direct  path  is  always  pointc^d  out  to  man." 


fNTERRo<3AioN.]  PUNCTUATION.  18a 

A  period  may  sometimes  be  admitted  between  two  sentences, 
though  they  are  joined  by  a  disjunctive  or  copulative  conjunction. 
For  th<i  quality  of  the  point  does  not  always  depend  on  the  con- 
tiective  particle,  but  on  the  sense  and  structure  of  sentences  :  as, 
*'  Recreations,  though  they  may  be  of  an  innocent  kind,  require 
i!teady  government,  to  k^ep  them  within  a  due  and  limited  pro- 
vince. But  such  as  are  of  an  irregular  and  vitious  nature,  are 
not  to  be  governed,  but  to  be  banished  from  every  well-regulated 
mind." 

**He  who  lifts  himself  up  to  the  observation  and  notice  of  the 
world,  is,  of  all  men,  the  least  likely  to  avoid  censure.  For  he 
draws  upon  himself  a  tliousand  eyes,  that  will  narrowly  inspect 
<iim  in  every  part.*^' 

The  period  should  be  used  after  every  abbreviated  word :  as, 
**M.  S.     P.  S.     N,B.    A.  D.     O.  S.     N.  S."  &c. 

CHAPTER   V.     Of  the  Dash,  JSTotes  of  Initrrogaiion  and 
E^claiuaiion,  fyc^ 

The  Dash. 
The  Dash,  though  often  used  improperly  by  hasty  and  inco- 
lierent  writers,  may  be  introduced  with  propriety,  where  the 
fsentence  breaks  off  abruptly  ;  where  a  significant  pause  is  i;e- 
quired^  or  where  there  is  an  unexpected  turn  in  the  sentiment : 
as,  *'  If  thou  art  he,  so  much  respected  once — but,  oh !  how  fallen ! 
bow  degraded  !"  "If  acting  conformably  to  the  will  of  our  Cre- 
ator ; — if  promoting  the  welfare  of  mankind  around  us ; — if  scr 
curing  our  own  happiness  ; — are  objects  of  the  highest  moment: 
—then  we  are  loudly  called  upon,  to  cultivate  and  extend  the 
great  interests  of  religion  and  virtue." 

"  Here  lies  the  great False  marble,  where  ? 

Nothing  but  sordid  iust  lies  here." 
Besides  the  points  which  mark  the  pauses  in  discourse,  there 
are  others,  which  denote  a  different  modulation  of  voice,  in 
^correspondence  to  the  sense.     These  are. 

The  Interrogation  point,  ? 
The  Exclamation  point,  *, 
The  Parenthesis.  ( ) 

Interrogation. 

A  note  of  Interrogation  is  used  at  the  end  of  an  interrogative 
sentence  ;  that  is,  when  a  question  is  asked  :  as,  "  Who  will  ac- 
company hfie  ?"    "  Shall  we  always  be  friends  ?" 

Questions  which  a  person  asks  himself  in  contemplation, 
ought  to  be  terminated  by  points  of  interrogation :  as,  **  Who 
adorned  the  heavens  with  such  exquisite  beauty  ?"  **  At  whose 
command  do  the  planets  perform  their  constant  revolutions  ?" 

A  point  of  interrogation  is  improper  after  sentences  which  are 
not  questions,  but  only  expressions  of  admiration,  or  of  noaift 
Qiher  emotion 


in 


184  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR.       [Exclamation. 

"How  many  instances  bave  we  of  chastity  and  excellence  in 
the  fair  sex !'' 

"  With  what  prudence  does  the  son  of  Sirach  advise  us  in  tli 
choice  of  our  companions !" 

,  A  note  of  interrogation  should  not  be  employed,  in  cases  where 
it  is  only  said  a  question  has  been  asked,  and  where  the  words 
are  not  used  as  a  question.  "  The  Cyprians  asked  me,  why  1 
wept."  To  give  this  sentence  the  interrogative  form,  it  should 
be  expressed  thus :  "  The  Cyprians  said  to  me,  '  Why  dost 
thou  weep.^' " 
'  Exclamation. 

The  note  of  Exclamation  is  applied  to  expressions  of  sudden 
emotion,  surprise,  joy,   grief,  &c.   and   also   to  invocations  or 
addresses:  as,  "My  friend!  this  conduct  amazes  me  !"  **  Bless 
the  Lord,  O  my  soul !  and  forget  not  all  his  benefits !" 
"  Oh!  had  we  both  our  humble  state  maintained, 
And  safe  in  peace  and  poverty  remain'd  !" 

**Hear  me  O  Lord !  for  thy  lovingkindness  is  great  !** 

It  is  difficult,  in  some  Cases,  to  distinguish  between  an  interro- 
gative and  exclamatory  sentence;  but  a  sentence,  in  which  any 
wonder  or  admiration  is  expressed,  and  no  answer  either  ex 
pected  or  implied,  may  be  always  properly  terminated  by  a  not« 
of  exclamation :  as,  "  How  much  vanity  in  the  pursuits  of  men  !** 
**  Who  can  sufficiently  express  the  goodness  of  our  Creator!** 
"What  is  more  amiable  than  virtue  !" 

The  interrogation  and  exclamation  points  are  indeterminate 
as  to  their  quantity  or  time,  and  may  be  equivalent  in  that  re- 
spect to  a  semicolon,  a  colon,  or  a  period,  as  the  sense  may  re- 
quire.    They  mark  an  elevation  of  the  voice. 

The  utility  of  the  points  of  Interrogation  and  Exclamation  ap- 
pears from  the  following  examples,  in  which  the  meaning  ia 
signified  and  discriminated  solely  by  the  points. 
"  What  condescension !" 
*'  What  condescension  ?" 
"  How  great  was  the  sacrifice  !" 
"  How  great  was  the  sacrifice  ?'* 

Parc7ithesis. 
A  Parenthesis  is  a  clause  containing  some  necessary  informa 
tion,  or  useful  remark,  introduced  into  the  body  of  a  sentence 
obliquely,  and  which  may  be  omitted  without  injuring  the  gram- 
matical construction  :  as, 

"  Know  then  this  truth,  (enough  for  man  to  know,) 

Virtue  alone  is  happiness  below."' 
"  And  was  the  ransom  paid  ?    It  was  ;  and  paid 
(What  can  oxak  his  bounty  more?)  for  thee." 
"To  gain  a  posthumous  reputation,  is  to  save  four  or  five 
letters  (for  what  is  a  name  besides  ?)  from  oblivion."     "  Know  3'e 
not,  brethren,  (for  I  speak  to  them  itiat  know  the  law,)  how  that 
the  law  hath  dominion  over  a  man  as  lonj?  as  he  liveth  ?'* 


Parenthesis.  &c.]       PUINCITATION.  185 

If  the  incidental  clause  is  short,  or  perfectly  coincides  with  the 
rest  of  th«  sentence,  it  is  not  proper  to  use  the  parenthetical  cha- 
racters. The  following  instances  are  therefore  improi>er  uses 
of  the  parenthesis.  *' Speak  you  (who  saw)  his  wonders  in  the 
deep."  **  Every  planet  (as  the  Creator  has  made  nothing  in 
vfiin)  is  most  probably  inhabited.'*  "lie  found  them  asleep 
again  ;  (for  their  eyes  w^re  heavy  ;)  neither  knew  they  what  to 
answer  him."  .    > 

The  parenthesis  marks  a  moderate  depression  of  the  voice, 
and  may  be  accompanied  with  every  point  which  the  sense 
would  require,  if  the  parenthetical  characters  were  omitted.  It 
ought  to  terminate  with  the  same  kind  of  stop  which  the  member 
has,  that  precedes  it ;  and  to  contain  that  stop  within  the  paren 
thetical  marks.  We  must,  however,  except  cases  of  interroga 
tion  and  exclamation:  as,  "While  they  wish  to  please,  (and 
why  should  they  not  wish  it  ?)  they  disdain  dishonourable  means." 
*'  It  was  represented  by  an  analogy,  (Oh,  how  inadequate  !)  which 
was  borrowed  from  paganism."  See  the  Octavo  Grammg^r,  on 
this  subjecL 


There  are  other  characters,  which  are  frequently  made  use  of 
in  composition,  and  which  may  be  explained  in  this  place,  viz. 

An  Apostrophe,  marked  thus  '  is  used  to  abbreviate  orshorteti 
a  word  :  as,  His  for  it  is  ;  tho^  for  though  ;  e^en  for  even  ;  judged 
forjudged.  Its  chief  use  is  to  show  the  genitive  case  of  nouns* 
as,  "  A  man's  property ;   a  woman's  ornament." 

A  Caret,  marked  thus  a  is  placed  where  some  word  happens 
to  be  left  out  in  writing,  and  which  is  inserted  over  the  line. 
This  mark  is  also  called  a  circumflex,  when  placed  over  a  parti- 
cular vowel,  to  denote  a  long  syllable  :  as,  "  EuphrSites." 

A  Hyphen,  marked  thus  -  is  employed  in  connecting  conr 
pounded  words  ;  as,  "  Lap-dog,  tea-pot,  pre-existence,  self-love, 
to-morrow,  mother-in-law." 

It  is  also  used  when  a  word  is  divided,  and  the  former  part 
written  or  printed  at  the  end  of  one  line,  and  the  latter  part  at  the 
beginning  of  another.     In  this  case,  it  is  placed  at  the  end  of  the 
first  line,  not  at  the  beginning  of  the  second. 

The  Acute  Accent,  marked  thus  " :  as,  **  Fdncy,^^  The  Grave 
thus  ' :  as,  *'  Favour,^'* 

In  English  the  Accentual  marks  are  chiefly  used  in  spelling- 
books  and  dictionaries,  to  mark  the  syllables  which  require  a 
particular  stress  of  the  voice  in  pronunciation. 

The  stress  is  laid  on  long  and  short  syllables  indiscriminately, 
In  order  to  distinguish  the  one  from  the  other,  some  writers  of 
dictionaries  have  placed  the  grave  on  the  former,  and  the  acute 
on  the  latter,  in  this  manner :  **  Minor,  mineral,  lively,  hVid, 
rival,  river." 

The  proper  mark  to  distinguish  a  long  syllable.  Is  this"  : 
as,  *'  Rosy  :"  and  a  s^jOK  one  tnis  **  :  as,  "  Folly  "  Thia  ^trf 
Tiark  is  called  a  breve. 


186  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 

A  DiEeresis,  thus  marked  "  ,  consists  of  two  points  placed  over 
one  of  the  two  vowels  that  would  otherwise  make  a  diphthong,  and 
parts  them  into  two  syllables :  as,  *' Creator,  coadjutor,  aerial." 

A  Section,  marked  thus  §j  is  the  division  of  a  discourse,  or 
chapter,  into  less  parts  or  portions. 

A  Paragraph  H  denotes  the  beginning  of  a  new  subject,  or  a 
sentence  not  connected  with  the  foregoing.  This  character  j« 
chiefly  used  in  the  Old,  and  in  the  New  Testaments. 

A  Quotation  "  ".  Two  inverted  commas  are  generally  ])laced 
at  the  beginning  of  a  phrase  or  a  passage,  which  is  quoted  or 
transcribed  from  the  speaker  or  author  in  his  own  words  ;  and 
two  apostrophes  in  their  direct  position,  are  placed  at  the  conclu 
sion:  as, 

"  The  proper  study  of  mankind  is  man.'* 

Crotchets  or  Brackets  []  serve  to  enclose  a  sentence,  which  is 
to  be  explained  in  a  note,  or  the  explanation  itself,  or  a  word  or 
a  sentence  which  is  intended  to  supply  some  deficiency,  or  to 
rectify  some  mistake. 

An  Index  or  hand  QJ^  points  out  a  remarkable  passage,  w 
something  that  requires  particular  attention. 

A  Brace     >  is  used  in  poetry  at  the  end  of  a  triplet  or  three 

lilies,  which  have  the  same  rhyme. 

Braces  are  also  used  to  connect  a  number  of  words  with  one 
common  term,  and  are  introduced  to  prevent  a  repetition  in 
writing  or  printing. 

An  Asterisk,  or  little  star*,  directs  thereailei  to  some  note  iu 
the  margin,  or  at  the  bt)ttom  of  the  page.  Two  or  three  aste- 
risks generally  denote  the  omission  of  some  letters  in  a  word,  orot 
some  bold  or  indelicate  expression,  or  some  defect  in  the  numu 
script. 

An  Ellipsis —  is  also  used,  when  some  letters  in  a  word,  or  some 
words  in  a  verse,  are  omitted  :  as,  *'  The  k — g,"  for  "  the  king." 

An  Obelisk,  which  is  marked  thus  f,  and  Parallels  thus  |j,  toge- 
ther with  the  letters  of  the  Alphabet,  and  figures,  are  used  as 
references  to  the  margin,  or  bottom  of  the  page. 
Paragraphs. 

It  may  not  be  improper  to  insert,  in  this  place,  a  few  general  di- 
rections respecting  the  division  of  a  composition  into  paragraphs. 

Different  subjects,  unless  they  are  very  short,  or  very  nurne^ 
rous  in  small  compass,  should  be  separated  into  paragraphs. 

When  one  subject  is  continued  to  a  considerable  length,  the 
larger  divisions  of  it  should  be  put  into  paragraphs.  And  it  will  have 
a  good  effect  to  form  the  breaks,  when  it  can  properly  be  done 
at  sentiments  of  tlTe  most  weight,  or  that  call  for  pecuhar  attention. 

The  facts,  premises,  and  conclusions,  of  a  subject,  sometimes 
naturally  point  out  the  separations  into  paragraphs:  and  each 
of  these,  when  of  great  length,  will  again  rcquii-te  subdivisions  a i 
their  most  distinctive  n)arts. 

h\  axjsGS  which  require  a  conaecied  subject  to  be  formed  L 


PUNCTUATION.  187 

sevdral  paragraphs,  a  suitable  turn  of  expression,  exliibiting  the 
connexion  of  the  broken  parts,  will  give  beauty  and  force  to  the 
division.     Ste.  the  Octavo  Grammar. 

Directions  respecting  the  use  of  Capital  Letters. 
It  w^as  formerly  the  custom  to  begin  every  noun  vs^ith  a  capi- 
tal :  but  as  this  practice  was  troublesome,  and  gave  the  writing  or 
printing  a  crowded  and  confused  appearance,  it  has  been  discon- 
tinued.    It  is  however,  very  proper  to  begin  with  a  capital, 

1  The  first  word  of  every  book,  chapter,  letter,  note,  or  an 
other  i)iece  of  writing. 

2  The  first  word  after  a  period  ;  and,  if  the  two  sentences  are 
totally  independent,  after  a  note  of  inierrogation  or  exclamation. 

But  if  a  number  of  interrogative  or,  exclamatory  sentences,  are 
thrown  into  one  general  group  ;  or  if  the  construction  of  the  lat 
ter  sentences  depends  on  the  former,  all  of  them,  except  the  first, 
may  begin  w  ith  a  small  letter :  as,  "  How  long,  ye  simple  ones, 
will  ye  love  simplicity?  and  the  scorners  delight  in  their  scorn- 
ing? and  fools  hate  knowledge?"  "Alas!  how  dificrent !  yet 
liow  like  the  same  !" 

3  Tlie  a[)pellations  of  the  Deity  :  as,  "  God,  Jehovah,  the  Al 
mighty,  the  Supreme  Being,  the  Lord,  Providence,  the  Messiah, 
the  Holy  Spirit. 

4  Proper  names  of  persons,  places,  streets,  mountains,  rivers, 
Bhips  :  as,  "  George,  York,  the  Strand,  the  Alps,  the  Thames,  the 
Seahorse." 

5  Adjectives  derived  from  the  proper  names  of  peaces:  as, 
Grecian,  Roman,  English,  French,  and  Itahan." 

6  The  first  word  of  a  quotation,  introduced  after  a  colon,  or 
when  it  is  in  a  direct  form  :  as,  *'  Always  remember  this  ancient 
maxim:  *  Know  thyself.'"  "  Our  great  Lawgiver  says, 'Take 
'ip  thy  cross  daily,  and  follow  me.'  "  But  wlien  a  quotation  is 
brought  in  obliquely  after  a  comma,  a  capital  is  unnecessary  :  as, 
*  Solomon  observes,  *  that  pride  goes  before  destruction.'  " 

The  first  woixi  of  an  example  may  also  very  properly  begin 
with  a  ca})ital :  as,  "  Temptation  proves  our  virtue." 

7  Every  substantive  and  principal  word  in  the  titles  of  books  : 
as,  *' Johnson's  Dictionary  of  the  English  Language;"  *'Thom 
son^s  Seasons  ;"  "  Rollin's  Ancient  History." 

8  The  first  word  of  every  line  in  poetry. 

9  The  pronoun  J,  and  the  interjection  O,  are  written  in  capi 
ials:  as,  "  I  write :"  *'  Hear,  O  earth  !" 

Other  words,  besides  the  preceding,  may  begin  with  capitals, 
when  they  are  remarkably  empbatical,  or  the  principal  subject 
•f  the  com]>osition. 


[    188    ] 

APPENDIX. 


CONTAINING  RULES  AND  OBSERVATIONS  FOR  ASSISTING  TOUNG 
PERSONS  TO  WRITE  WITH  PERSPICUITY  AND  ACCURACY,  TO  BE 
STUDIED  AFTER  THEY  HAVE  ACQUIRED  A  COMPETENT  KNOW- 
LEDGE OF  ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 


PERSPICUITY  * 

Is  the  fundamental  quality  of  style :  a  quality  so  essential  m 
every  kind  of  writi-ng,  that  for  the  want  of  it  nothing  can  atone. 
It  is  not  to  be  considered  as  merely  a  sort  of  negative  virtue,  or 
freedom  from  defect.  It  has  higher  merit :  it  is  a  degree  of  posi 
tive  beauty.  We  are  pleased  with  an  author,  and  consider  him 
as  deserving  praise,  who  frees  us  from  all  fatigue  of  searching 
for  his  meaning  ;  who  carries  us  tlirough  his  subject  without  any 
embarrassment  or  confusion ;  whose  style  flows  always  like  a 
limpid  stream,  through  which  we  see  to  tlie  very  bottom. 

Tlie  study  of  perspicuity  and  accuracy  of  expression  consists 
of  two  parts :  and  requires  attention,  first,  to  Single  Words  and 
Phrases  ;  and  then,  to  the  Construdiori  of  Sentences. 

PART  I. 

Of  Perspicuity  and  Accuracy  of  Expression,  with  respect  to  single 
Words  and  Phrases. 

These  qualities  orstyIe,*considered  with  regard  to  words  and 
phrases,  require  the  following  properties :  purity,  propriety, 
and  precision. 

CHAPTER  I.     Of  Purity. 

Purity  of  style  consists  in  the  use  of  such  words,  and  such 
constructions,  as  belong  to  the  idiom  of  the  language  which  we 
speak;  in  opposition  to  words  and  phrases  that  .are  taken  from 
other  languages,  or  that  are  ungrammatical,  obsolete,  new-coin- 
ed, or  used  without  proper  authority.  All  such  words  and 
phrases  as  the  following,  should  be  avoided :  Quoth  he;  I  ivist 
not ;  erewhile  ;  behest ;  selfsame  ;  delicaiesse,  for  delicacy  ;  politesse, 
for  politeness  ;  hauteur,  for  haughtiness  ;  incumherinent,  connexity 
martyrised,  for  encumberance,  connexion,  martyred. 

Foreign  and  learned  words,  unless  where  necessity  requires 
them,  should  never  be  admitted  into  our  composition.  Barren 
languages  may  need  such  assistance,  but  ours  is  not  one  of  these. 
A  multitude  of  Latin  words,  in  particular,  have,  of  late,  been 
poured  in  upon  our  language.  On  some  occasions,  they  give  an 
appearance  of  elevation  and  dignity  to  style ;  but  they  often 
render  it  stiff  and  apparently  forced.  In  general,  a  plain,  nntive 
style,  is  more  ifitelligible  to  all  readers ;  and,  by  a  proper  manage 
ment  of  words,  it  can  be  made  as  strong  and  expressive  as  this 
Latinised  English,  or  any  foreign  Idioms. 


PaopRiETY.]  PERSriCUITY,  fcc.  ISO 

CHAPTER  II.      Of  Prnpriefi/. 

Proprietv  of  language  is  the  selection  of  such  words  as  the 
ie.st  usage  has  appropriated  to  those  ideas,  wfiich  we  intend  to 
'•xpress  by  them  ;  in  opposition  to  hjw  expressions,  and  to  words 
nnd  phrases  which  would  be  less  significant  of  the  ideas  that  we 
mean  to  convey.  Style  may  be  pure,  that  is,  it  may  be  strictly 
English,  without  Scotticisnis  or  Gallicisms,  or  ungrammatical, 
irregular  expressions  of  any  kind,  and  mny,  nevertheless,  be  defi- 
cient in  propriety  :  for  the  words  may  be  ill  chosen,  not  adapted 
to  the  subject,  nor  fully  expressive  of  the  author's  sense. 

To  preserve  propriety,  therefore,  in  our  words  and  phrases, 
we  must  avoid  low  expressions;  supply  words  that  are  wanting , 
be  careful  not  to  use  the  same  word  in  different  senses  ;  avoid  the 
injudicious  use  of  technical  phrases,  equivocal  or  ambiguous  words, 
uninteUigibU  expressions,  and  all  such  ivords  and  phrases  as  are 
not  adapted  to  our  meaning. 

1  Avoid  low  expressions  :  such  as,  *'  Topsy  tufvy,  hurly  burly, 
pellmell ;  having  a  month's  mind  for  a  thing ;  currying  favour 
with  a  person  ;  dancing  attendance  on  the  great,"  &c. 

**  Meantime  the  Britons,  left  to  shift  for  themselves,  were 
forced  to  call  in  the  Saxons  for  their  defence."  The  phrase 
**  left  to  shift  for  themselves,^''  is  rather  a  low  phrase,  and  too  much 
in  the  famihar  style  to  be  proper  in  a  grave  treatise. 

2  Supply  words  that  are  wanting,  "  Arbitrary  power  I  look 
upon  as  a  greater  evil  than  anarchy  itself,  as  much  as  a  savage 
is  a  happier  state  of  life  than  a  slave  at  the  oar  :"  it  should  have 
been,  "  as  much  as  the  state  of  a  savage  is  happier  than  that  of  a 
slave  at  the  oar."  "He  has  not  treated  this  subject  liberally,  by 
the  views  of  others  as  well  as  his  own  ;"  "  By  adverting  to  the 
views  of  others,"  would  have  been  better.  *'  This  generous 
action  greatly  increased  his  former  services ;"  it  should  have 
been,  **  greatly  increased  the  ment  of  his  former  services."  *'  By 
the  pleasures  of  the  ijuagination  or  fan-jy  (which  I  shal'  use 
promiscuously)  I  here  mean,"  <!^c.  This  passage  ought  to  have 
had  the  word  "terms"  supplied,  which  would  have  made  it 
correct :  '^  terms  whi(!h  I  shall  use  promiscuously." 

It  may  be  proper  in  this  place  to  observe,  that  articles  and 
prepositions  are  sometimes  improperly  omitted  ;  as  in  the  follow 
ing  instances  :  "How  immense  thje  difterence  between  the  piou:* 
and  profane  !"  "Death  is  the  common  lot  of  all ;  of  good  men  and 
bad."  They  should  have  had  the  article  and  preposition  repeated 
*'  How  inuiiense  the  difference  between  the  pi(5us  and  the  profane."* 
*  Death  is  the  common  lot  of  all ;  q/'good  men  and  q/*bad." 

The  repetition  of  articles  and  preiK)sitions  is  proper,  when  we 
mtend  to  point  out  the  objects  of  which  we  speak,  as  distinguished 
trom  each  other,  or  in  contrast ;  and  when  we  wish  tliat  the  read- 
ers attention  should  rest  on  that  distinction  :  as,  "  Our  sight 'is 
At  once  the  most  delightful,  and  the  most  useful  of  all  our  senses." 

3  In  the  same  sentence,  be  careful  not  to  use  the  same  ivord  too 
frequently,  nor  in  different  senses.     '*  One  may  have  an  air  tchich 


i 


(00  APPENDIX.  [Propriety 

proceeds  from  a  just  sufficiency  and  knowledge  of  the  matter 
before  him,  which  may  naturally  produce  some  motions  of  his 
Iiead  and  body,  which  n)ight  become  the  bench  better  than  the  bar." 

The  pronoun  tvhich  is  here  thrice  used,  in  tiuch  a  manner  as  to 
throw  obscurity  over  tiie  Sentence. 

**  Gregory  favoured*  the  undertaking,  for  no  other  reason  than 
th]S,  that  the  manager,  in  countenance,  favoured  his  friend." 
should  have  been,  '*  resembled  his  friend." 

"  Charity  expands  our  hearts  in  love  to  God  and  man  :  it  is  by 
the  virtue  of  charity  that  the  rich  are  blessed,  and  the  poor  sup[)li- 
ed."  In  this  sentence,  the  word  ^'charity"  is  improperly  used  in  two 
different  senses;  for  the  highest  benevolence,  and  for  almsgiving 

4  Avoid  the  injudicious  use  of  technical  terms.  To  inform  those 
who  do  not  understand  sea-phrases,  that  "  We  tacked  to  tiio 
larboard,  and  stood  off  to  sea,"  would  be  expressing  ourselves 
very  obscurely.  Technical  phrases  not  being  in  current  use, 
but  only  the  peculiar  dialect  of  a  particular  class,  we  should  ne*^er 
use  them  but  when  we  know  they  will  be  understood. 

5  Avoid  equivocal  or  ambiguous  words.  The  following  sentences 
are  exceptionable  in  this  respect.  "As  for  such  animals  a&  are 
mortal  or  noxious,  we  have  a  right  to  destroy  them."  *'  1  long 
since  learned  to  like  nothing  but  what  you  rfo."  *'  He  aimed  at 
nothing  less  than  the  crown,"  may  denote  either,  "  Nothing  was 
less  aimed  at  by  him  than  the  crown,"  or  "  Nothing  inferior  to 
the  crown  could  satisfy  his  ambition."  **/  will  have  mercy,  and 
not  sacrifice."  The  first  part  of  this  sentence  denotes,  "  I  will 
exercise  mercy  ;"  whereas  it  is  in  this  place  employed  to  signify, 
*'  I  require  others  to  exercise  it."  The  translation  should  there- 
fore have  been  accommodated  to  these  different  meanings. 
"  They  were  both  much  more  ancient  among  the  Persians,  than 
Zoroaster  or  Zerdusht."  The  or  in  this  sentence  is  equivocal. 
It  serves  either  as  a  copulative  to  synonymous  words,  or  as  a 
disjunctive  of  different  things.  If,  therefore,  the  student  should 
not  know  that  Zoroaster  and  Zerdusht  mean  the  same  ])erson, 
he  will  mistake  the  sense.  *' The  rising  tomb  a  lofty  column 
bore:"  "And  thus  the  son  the  fervent  sire  addrest."  Did  the 
tomb  bear  the  column,  or  the  column  the  tomb  .^  Did  the  son 
address  the  sire,  or  the  sire  the  son  ? 

6  Avoid  unintelligible  and  inco?isistent  words  or  phiases,  "1 
have  observed,"  says  Steele,  "  that  the  superiority  among  these 
r.ofteehouse  politicians,  proceeds  from  an  opinion  of  gallantry 
»nd  fashion."  This  sentence,  considered  in  itself,  evidently  con- 
veys no  meaning.  First,  it  is  not  said  whose  opinion,  their  own, 
or  that  of  others:  Secondly,  it  is  not  said  what  opinion,  or  of 
what  sort,  favourable  or  unfavourable,  true  or  false,  but  in  gene- 
ral, *'  an  opinion  of  gallantry  and  fashion,"  which  contains  no 
definite  expression  of  any  meaning.  With  the  joint  assistance 
of  the  context,  reflection,  and  conjecure,  we  shall  perhaj)S  con- 
clude that  the  author  intended  to  say  ;  "Tiiat  the  rank  amo»ig 
these  politicians  vva.s  determined  by  the  opinion  generally  enttji 


Propriety.]  PERSPICUITY,  &c.  191 

fainecl  of  the  rank,  in  point  of  gallantry  and  fashion,  that  each  of 
Ihein  had  attained." 

"  This  temper  of  mind,"  says  an  author,  speaking  of  humility, 
"  keeps  our  understanding  tight  about  us."  Whether  the  author 
had  any  meaning  in  this  expression,  or  what  it  was,  is  not  easy 
to  determine. 

Sometimes  a  writer  runs  on  in  a  specious  verbosity,  amusing 
his  reader  with  synonymous  terms  and  identical  propositions, 
well-turned  periods,  and  high  sounding  words  ,  but  at  the  same 
time,  using  those  words  so  indefinitely,  that  the  reader  can 
either  affix  no  meaning  at  all  to  them,  or  may  a^x  to  them  almost 
any  meaning  he  pleases. 

"  Jf  it  is  asked,"  says  a  late  writer,  "whence  arises  the  har- 
mony, or  beauty  of  language  ?  what  are  the  rules  for  obtaining 
it  ?  the  answer  is  obvious.  Whatever  renders  a  period  sweet 
and  pleasant,  makes  it  also  graceful.  A  good  ear  is  the  gift  of 
nature ;  it  may  be  much  injproved,  but  not  acquired  by  art. 
Whoever  is  }>ossessed  of  it,  will  scarcely  need  dry  critical  pre- 
cepts to  enable  him  to  judge  of  a  true  rhythmus,  and  melody  of 
composition.  Just  numbers,  accurate  proportions,  a  musical 
synifiUony,  magnificent  figiu'es,  and  that  decorum  which  is  the 
result  of  all  these,  are  unison  to  tho  human  mind." 

Tlie  following  is  a  poetical  example  of  the  same  nature,  in 
which  there  is  scarcely  a  glimpse  of  meaning,  though  it  was  com 
posed  by  an  eminent  poet. 

From  harmony,  from  heavenly  harmony, 
This  universal  fraftie  began  : 
From  harmony  to  harmony 
Thro'  all  the  compass  of  the  notes  it  ran, 
The  diapason  closing  full  in  man. 

In  general,  it  maj'  be  said,  that  in  writ'ngs  of  this  stamp,  we 
must  accept  of  sound  instead  of  sense  ;  being  assured,  that  if  we 
meet  with  little  that  can  inform  the  judgment,  we  shall  at  least 
find  nothing  that  will  offend  the  ear.  And  perhaps  this  is  one 
eason  that  we  |)ass  over  such  smooth  language,  without  sus- 
pecting that  it  contains  little  or  no  meaning.  In  order  to  writ** 
or  speak  clearly  and  intelligibly,  two  things  are  especially  re- 
quisite :  one,  that  we  have  clear  and  distinct  ideas  of  our  subject ; 
and  the  other,  that  our  words  be  approved  signs  of  those  ideas. 
That  })ersons  who  think  confusedly,  should  express  themselves 
'obscurely,  is  not  to  be  wondered  at ;  for  embarrassed,  obscure,  and 
feeble  sentences,  are  generally,  if  not  always,  the  result  of  embar- 
rassed, obscure,  and  feeble  thought ;  but  that  persons  of  judgment,! 
who  are  accustomed  to  scrutinize  their  ideas,  and  the  signification 
of  their  words,  should  sometimes  write  without  any  meaning,  is,  at 
first  sight,  matter  of  admiration.  This,  however,  when  further  con- 
sidered, appears  to  be  an  effect  derived  from  the  same  cause,  in- 
distinctness of  conception,  and  inattention  to  the  exact  import  of 
words.  The  occasions  on  which  we  are  most  apt  to  speak  dnd 
wTite  in  this  unii>telligihle  manner,  are  the  three  following. 


1 


i92  APPENDIX.  [PftOPKiEr 

The  first  it?,  where  there  is  an  exuberance  of  nietaj  hor 
Writers  who  are  fond  of  the  metaphoric  style,  are  generally  dis 
posed  to  continue  it  too  long,  and  to  pursue  it  too  far. 

Tiiey  are  often  misled  by  a  desire  of  flourishing  on  the  several 
proj)ertics  of  a  metaphor  which  they  liave  Ushered  into  the  dis- 
course, without  taking  the  trouble  to  examine  whether  there  are 
any  qualities  in  the  subject,  to  which  these  properties  can,  with 
justice  and  perspicuity,  be  applied.  The  following  instance  of thia 
sort  of  writing  is  from  an  author  of  considerable  eminence. 
*^  Men  must  acquire  a  very  peculiar  and  strong  habit  of  turning 
their  view  inwar^',  in  order  to  explore  the  interior  regions  and 
recesses  of  the  mind,  the  hollow  caverns  of  deep  thought,  the 
private  seats  of  fancy,  and  the  wastes  and  wildernesses,  «i 
well  as  the  more  fruitful  and  cultivated  tracts  of  this  obscure 
climate."  A  most  wonderful  way  of  telling  us,  that  it  is  difficult 
to  trace  the  operations  of  the  mind.  The  author  having  deter- 
mined to  represent  the  human  mind  under  the  metaplior  of  a 
country,  revolved  in  his  thoughts  the  various  objects  which 
might  be  found  in  a  country,  without  considering  whether  there 
are  any  things  in  the  mind  properly  analogous  to  these.  Hence 
the  strange  parade  he  makes  with  regions  and  recesses,  hollow  ca- 
verns and  private  seats,  wastes  and  wildernesses,  fruitful  and  culti- 
vated tracts ;  words  which,  though  they  have  a  precise  meaning,  as 
dip}>lied  to  country, have  no  definite  signification, as  applied  to  mind. 

The  second  occasion  of  our  being  apt  to  write  unintelligibly,  is 
that  wherein  the  terms  most  frequently  occurring,  denote  things 
which  are  of  a  comphcated  nature;  and  to  which  the  mind  is  not 
sufficiently  familiarised.  Of  these  the  instances  are  numberless 
in  every  tongue  ;  sucii  as  Government,  church,  state,  constitution, 
power,  legislature,  jurisdiction,  &c. 

The  third  and  principal  occasion  of  unintelligible  writing,  is, 
when  the  terms  employed  are  very  abstract,  and  consequently  of 
very  extensive  signification.  Thus  the  word  lio7i  is  more  dis- 
tinctly apprehended  by  the  mind  than  the  word  heast,  beast  than 
animal,  animal  than  being. 

The  7th  and  last  rule  for  })rescrving  propriety  in  our  words 
and  phrases,  is,  to  avoid  all  those  which  are  not  adapted  to  the  ideas 
ice  mean  to  communicate  ;  or  which  are  less  signifcarit  than  others, 
of  those  ideas.  "  He  feels  any  sorrow  that  can  arrive  at  man  ;" 
better  "  happen  to  man."  *'  The  conscience  of  approving  one's 
self  a  benefactor,  is  the  best  recompense  for  being  sa;"  it  should 
have  been  "  conscio^isness.^^  *'  He  firmly  believed  the  divine  pre- 
tept,  '  There  is  not  a  sparrow  falls  to  the  ground,'  "  &c.  It 
shojild  have  been  "t/odmie." 

"  It  is  but  opening  the  eye,  and  the  scene  enters."  A  sceiie 
cannot  be  said  to  enter :  an  alitor  enters  ;  but  a  scene  appears  or 
presents  itself. 

*'  We  immediately  assent  to  the  beauty  of  an  object,  without 
inquiring  into  the  causes  of  it:"  it  is  proper  to  say,  that  we  as- 
sent to  the  truth  of  a  proposition  ;  but  it  cannot  so  well  be  said, 


Precision.]  PERSPICIJITY.  &c.  103 

that  VV8  assent  to  the  beauty'ofan  object.    Acknowledge  would  haTC 
expressed  the  sense  \'v  idi  propriety. 

*'Tiie  sense  of  feeling,  can,  indeed,  give  us'a  notion  of  exten- 
sion, shape,  and  all  other  ideas  that  enter  at  the  eye,  except  co- 
lours." Extension  and  shape  can,  with  no  pro])riety,  be  called 
ideas ;  they  are  properties  of  matter.  Neither  is  it  accurate,  to 
speak  of  any  sense  giving  us  a  notion  of  ideas  t  our  senses  give 
lis  the  ideas  themselves.  The  meaning  of  the  sentence  would 
have  been  proper,  and  much  clearer,  if  the  author  had  expressed 
himself  thus :  "  The  sense  of  feehng  can,  indeed,  give  us  the 
idea  of  extension,  figure,  and  all  tne  other  properties  of  matter, 
■>vhich  are  perceived  by  the  eye,  except  colours." 

"  The  covetous  man  never  has  a  sufficiency  ;  although  he  has 
ivhat  is  enough  for  nature,"  is  much  inferior  to,'*  The  covetous  man 
never  has  enough  ;  although  he  has  what  is  sufficient  for  nature." 

"A  traveller  observes  the  most  striking  objects  he  sees;  a  ge- 
neral remarks  all  tl«e  motions  of  his  enemy  ;"  better  thus ;  ''  A 
traveller  remarks,'^  &c. ;  "A  general  observes,''''  &c.  "This  mea- 
sure enlarged  his  school,  and  obhged  him  to  increase  the  build- 
uigs;"it  should  be,  ^^  increased  his  school;"  and  ^^  enlarge  the 
'iuildings." 

**He  applied  a  medicine  before  the  poison  had  time  to  work*" 
etter  thus:  *'  He  applied  an  antidote,^^  &c. 

"  The  poison  of  a  suspicious  temper  frequently  throws  out  its 
bad  qualities,  on  all  who  are  within  its  reach ;"  better,  *'  throws  out 
Its  malignant  qualities." 

"  I  will  go  except  I  should  be  ill ;"  *'  T  saw  them  all  unless  two 
n  three  :"  corrected  thus  ;  *'  unless  I  should  be  ill ;"  ''  excej/t  two 
or  three." 

A  selection  of  words  and  phrases,  which  are  peculiarly  ex- 
pressive of  the  ideas  we  design  to  communicate ;  or  which  are  as 
particular  and  determinate  in  their  signification,  as  is  consistent 
with  the  nature  and  the  scope  of  the  discourse ;  possesses  great 
beauty,  and  cannot  fail  to  produce  a  good  effect. 
CHAPTER  III.     Of  Precision. 

Precision  is  the  third  requisite  of  perspicuity  with  respect  to 
rvords  and  phrases.  It  signifies  retrenching  superfluities,  and 
pruning  the  expression,  so  as  to  exhibit  neither  more  nor  less 
ihan  an  exact  copy  of  the  person's  idea  who  uses  it. 

The  words  used  to  express  ideas  may  be  faulty  in  three  re- 
spects, 1st,  They  may  not  express  the  idea  which  the  author  in- 
tends, but  some  other  which  only  resembles  it :  secondly.  They 
may  express  that  idea,  but  not  fully  and  completely;  thirdly, 
They  may  express  it,  together  with  something  more  than  is  in- 
tended. Precision  stands  opposed  to  these  three  faults,  but  chiefly 
to  the  last.  Propriety  implies  a  freedom  from  the  two  former 
faults.  The  words  which  are  used  may  Le  proper ;  that  is,  they 
may  express  the  idea  intended,  and  they  may  express  it  fully ;  but 
to  be  precise^  signifies  that  they  express  that  idea  and  no  more. 
The  use  and  importance  of  precision  may  be  deduced  from  the 

E 


194  APPENDIX.  [PRECtsi05 1 

nn.tiire  of  th^  human  mind.     It  never  can  view,  clearly  and  dis 
tinctly,  more  than  one  object  at  a  time.     If  it  nnjst  look  at  two 
or   three   together,   especially    objects   that   have   resemblance 
or  connexion,  it  finds  itself  confused  and  embarrassed.     It  can- 
not clearly  pe;  ceive  in  what  they  agree,  and  in  what  they  diffen 
Thus,  were  any  object,  suppose  some  animal,  to  be  presented  to 
my  view,  of  whose  structure  I  v^ished  to  form  a  distinct  notion,  I 
should  desire  all  his  trappings  to  be  taken  off;  I  should  require) 
it  to  be  brought  before  me  by  itself,  and  to  stand  alone,  that  there  \ 
might  be  nothing  to  divide  my  attention.     The  same  rs  the  case  j 
with  words.     If,  when  any  one  would  inform  me  of  his  meaning,  j 
he  also  tells  me  more  than  what  conveys  it ;  if  he  joins  foreign  ; 
circumstances  to  the  pryicipal  objects  ;  if,  by  unnecessarily  va-  i 
rying  the  expression,  he  shitls  the  point  of  view,  and  makes  me  ; 
see  sometimes  the  object  itself,  and  sometimes  another  thing  that 
is  connected  with  it,  he  thereby  obli/res  me  to  look  on  several 
objects  at  once,  and  I  lose  sight  of  the  principal.  He  loads  the  ani- 
mal he  is  show^ing  me,  with  so  many  trappings  and  collars,  that  I 
cannot  distinctly  view  it ;  or  he  brings  so  many  of  the  same  spe- 
cies before  me,  somewhat  resenjbling,  and  yet  somewhat  differ 
ing,  that  I  see  none  of  them  clearly.     When  an  author  tells  me 
of  his  hero's  courage  in  the  day  of  battle,  the  expression  is  pre- 
cise, and  I  understand  it  fully  :  but  if,  from  the  desire  of  multiply- 
ing words,  he  should  praise  his  courage  and  fortitude;  at  the 
moment  he  joins  these  words  together,  my  idea  begins  to  waver. 
He  means  to  express  one  quality  more  strongly,  but  he  is  in  truth  i 
expressing  two  •  courage  resists  danger  ;  fortitude  supports  pain.  | 
The  occasion  of  exerting  each  of  these  qualities  is  different;  and  i 
being  led  lo  think  of  both  together,  when  only  one  of  them  should  j 
be  considered,  my  view  is  rendered  unsteady,  and  my  conception* 
of  the  object  indistinct. 

All  subjects  do  not  equally  require  precision.     It  is  sufficient, 
on  many  occasions,  that  we  have  a  general  view  of  the  meaning  ; 
The  subject,  perhaps,  is  of  the  known  and  familiar  kind,  and  we 
are  in  no  hazard  of  mistaking  the  sense  of  th'e  author,  though 
every  word  which  he  uses  is  not  precise  and  exact. 

Many  authors  offend  against  this  rule  of  precision,  A  considera  \ 
ble  one, in  describing  a  bad  action,  expresseshimself  thus:  "It  ista  i 
remove  a  good  and  orderly  affection,  and  to  introduce  an  ill  or  dis-  | 
orderly  one  •  to  commit  an  action  that  is  ill,  immoral,  and  unjust ;  to 
do  ill,  or  to  act  in  prejudice  of  integrity,  good  nature,  and  worth  ' 

A  crowd  of  unmeaning  or  usele&s  words  is  brought  together 
by  some  authors,  who,  afraid  of  expressing  themselves  in  a 
common  and  ordinary  manner,  and  allured  by  an  appearance 
of  splendour,  surround  everything  which  they  mean  to  say  wii' 
a  certain  copious  loquacity. 

The  great  source  of  a  loose  style  in  opposition  to  precision, 
the  injudicious  use  of  the  words  termed  synonymous.    They  are 
called  synonymous,  because  they  agree  in  expressing  one  prin- 


t 


Precisiom.1  rERSriCUITY,  &cc.  193 

cipal  idea;  but,  for  the  most  part,  if  not  always,  they  express  ii 
with  some  diverb-ity  in  the  circumstances. 

Tiic  following  instances  siiow  a  difference  in  the  meaning  oi 
words  reputed  synonymous,  and  point  out  the  use  of  attending 
with  care  and  strictness,  to  the  exact  import  of  words. 

Custovu  habit. — Custom,  res])ects  the  action  ;  habit,  the  actor 
By  custom,  we  mean  the  frequent  repetition  of  the  same  act 
liy  iiabit,  the  effect  which  that  repetition  produces  on  the  mind 
or  body.     By  the  custom  of  walking  often  in  the  streets,  one 
acquires  a  habit  of  idleness. 

Pride,  vanity. — Pride  makes  us  esteem  ourselves ;  vanity  makes 
us  desire  the  esteem  of  others.  It  is  just  to  say,  that  a  man  is 
too  proud  to  be  vain. 

Haughtiness,  disdain. — Haughtiness  is  founded  on  the  high 
opinion  we  entertain  of  ourselves;  disdain,  on  the  low  opinion 
we  have  of  others. 

Only,  alone. — Only,  imports  that  there  is  no  other  of  the  same 
kind  ;  alono,  imports  being  accompanied  by  no  other.  An  only 
child,  is  one  that  has  neither  brother  nor  sister ;  a  child  alone,  is 
one  who  is  left  by  itself.  There  is  a  difference,  therefore,  in  precise 
language,  between  these  two  phrases :  "  Virtue  only  makes  us 
happy  ;"  and  ""Virtue  alone  makes  us  happy." 

JVisdom,  prudence. — Wisdom  leads  us  to  speak  and  act  what  is 
most  proper.     Prudence,  prevents  our  speaking  or  acting  im 
properly. 

Entire,  complete. — A  thing  is  entire,  by  wanting  none  of  its 
parts :  complete,  by  wanting  none  of  the  appendages  that  belong 
to  it.  A  man  may  have  an  entire  house  to  himself,  and  yet  not 
have  one  complete  apartment. 

Surprised,  astonished,  amazed,  confounded. — T  am  surprised 
with  what  is  new  or  unexpected  ;  I  am  astonished  at  what  is 
vast  or  great ;  I  am  amazed  at  what  is  incomprehensible  ;  I  am 
confounded  by  what  is  vshocking  or  terrible. 

Tranquillity ,  J) eace,  calm. — Tranquillity,  respects  a  situation  fvGQ 
from  trouble,  considered  in  itself;  peace,  the  same  situation  witli 
respect  to  any  causes  that  might  interrupt  it ;  calm,  with  regard 
to  a  disturbed  situation  going  before  or  following  it.  A  good 
man  enjoys  tranquillity,  in  himself;  peace,  with  others  ;  and 
calm,  after  the  storm. 

These  are  same  of  the  numerous  instances  of  words,  in  our 
language,  whose  significations  approach,  but  are  not  precisely 
the  same.  The  mote  the  distinction  in  the  meaning  of  such 
words  is  attended  to,  the  more  clearly  and  forcibly  shall  we 
speak  or  write.  It  may  not,  on  all  occasions,  be  necessary  to 
pay  a  great  deal  of  attention  to  very  nice  distinctions  ;  yet  the 
foregoing  instances  show  the  utility  of  some  general  care  to 
understand  the  distinct  import  of  our  words. 

While  we  are  attending  to  precision,  we  must  be  on  our  guard, 
I*»st,  from  the  desire  of  pruning  too  closely,  we  retrench  all 
copiousness.     Scarcely  in  any  language  are  there  two  wordii 


196  APPENDIX.  fCLEARNKS8. 

that  convey  precisely  the  same  idea  ;  a  person  thoroughly  con 
versant  iu  the  propriety  of  the  language,  will  alwayi^  be  able  to 
observe  something  that  distinguishes  them.  As  they  are  like 
different  shades  of  the  same  colour,  an  accurate  writer  can 
employ  them  to  great  advantage,  by  using  them  so  as  to  heighten 
and  complete  the  object  which  he  j)resents  to  us.  He  supplies 
by  one  what  was  wanting  in  the  other,  to  the  strength,  or  to  the 
finishing,  of  the  image  which  he  means  to  exhibit.  But,  for  this 
purpose,  he  must  be  attentive  to  the  choice  of  his  words,  and 
not  employ  them  carelessly,  merely  for  the  sake  of  filHng  up  a 
period,  or  of  rounding  or  diversifying  his  language,  as  if  their 
signification  were  exactly  the  same,  while  in  truth  it  is  not.  To 
unite  copiousness  and  precision,  to  be  full  and  easy,  and  at  the 
same  time  correct  and  exact  in  the  choice  of  every  word,  is  no 
doubt  one  of  the  highest  and  most  difficult  attainments  in  writing. 

PART  II. 

Of  Perspicuity  and  Accuracy  of  Expression,  with  respect  to  the 

Construction  of  Sentences, 

Sentences,  in  general,  should  neither  be  very  long,  nor  very 
short :  long  ones  require  close  attention  to  make  us  clearly  per- 
ceive the  connexion  of  the  several  parts ;  and  short  ones  are  apt 
to  break  the  sense,  and  weaken  the  connexion  of  thought.  Yet 
occasionally  they  may  both  be  used  with  force  and  propriety ; 
as  may  be  seen  in  the  following  sentences. 

*' If  you  look  about  you,  and  consider  the  lives  of  others  as 
well  as  your  own  ;  if  you  think  how  few  are  born  with  honour, 
and  how  many  die  without  name  or  children  ;  how  little  beauty 
we  see,  and  how  few  friends  we  hear  of;  how  much  poverty,  and 
how  many  diseases  there  g.re  in  the  world  ;  you  will  fall  down 
upon  your  knees,  and  instead  of  repining  at  one  affliction,  will 
admire  so  many  blessings  which  you  have  received  from  the 
Divine  hand.''  This  is  a  sentence  composed  of  several  members 
linked  together,  and  hanging  upon  one  another,  so  that  the  sense 
of  the  whole  is  not  brought  out  till  the  close.  The  following  is 
an  example  of  one  in  which  the  sense  is  formed  into  short,  inde- 
pendent propositions,  each  complete  within  itself.  *'  I  confess 
it  was  want  of  consideration  that  made  me  an  author.  I  wrote, 
because  it  amused  me.  I  corrected,  because  it  was  as  pleasant 
to  me  to  correct  as  to  write.  I  published,  because  I  was  told  I 
might  please  such  as  it  was  a  credit  to  please.*' 

A  train  of  sentences,  constructed  in  the  same  manner,  and 
with  the  same  number  of  members,  should  never  be  allowed  to 
succeed  one  another.  A  long  succession  of  either  long  or  short 
sentences  should  also  be  avoided  ;  for  the  ear  tires  of  either  of 
them  when  too  long  continued. 

Whereas,  by  a  proper  mixture  of  long  and  short  periods,  and 
of  periods  variously  constructed,  not  only  the  ear  is  gratified  ;  but 
animation  and  force  are  given  to  our  style. 

We  now  proceed  to  consider  the  things  most  essential  to  an 
accurate  and  a  perfect  sentence.     They  appear  to  be  the  four 


Ct-EARNEss.]  PERSPICUITY,  &c.  197 

following:   1.  clearness.    2.  unitf.    3.  strength.    4.  a  judi 

CIOUS  USK  OF  THE  FIGURES  OF  SPEECH. 

CHAPTER  I.     Of  the  Cleanuss  of  a  SeiHence, 

Purity,  propriety,  ami  jirecision,  in  words  Jind  phrases  sepa 
ralely  coiisidercil,liave  already  beon  explained,  and  shown  to  b» 
necessary  to  j>erspicnous  and  accurate  writini^.  Tiie  just  rela- 
tion of  sentences,  and  the  parts  of  sentences,  to  one  another,  and 
the  due  arrangement  of  the  whole,  are  tlie  subjects  which  remain 
to  be  discussed. 

The  first  requisite  of  a  perfect  sentence  is  clearness. 

Whatever  leaves  the  mini''  'n  any  sort  of  susjiense  as  to  the 
meaning,  ought  to  be  avoided.  Obscurity  arises  from  two  causes ; 
either  from  a  wrong  choice  of  words,  or  a  wrong  arrangenjenl 
of  them.  The  choice  of  words  and  phrases,  as  far  as  regards 
pevs})icuity,  has  been  already  considered.  The  disposition  of 
ihem  comes  now  undcrconsidcration. 

The  first  thing  to  be  studied  here,  is  grammatical  propriety. 
But  as  the  grammar  of  our  language  is  coiriparatively  not  ex 
tensive,  there  ma}'  be  an  obscure  order  of  words,  where  there  is 
no  transgression  of  any  granmiatical  rule.  The  rclatious  of  words, 
or  members  of  a  period,  an?,  with  us,  ascertained  only  by  the 
position  in  which  they  stand. 

Hence  a  capital  rule  in  the  arrangement  of  sentences  is,  that 
the  words  or  members,  most  clearly  related,  shouhi  be  placed  in 
the  sentence  as  near  to  each  other  as  possible,  so  as  to  make  their 
mutual  relation  clearly  appear.  It  will  be  proper  to  product/ 
some  instances,  in  order  to  show  the  importance  of  tiiis  rule. 

1  III  the  posiiion  ofadvtrhs.  "  The  Romans  ujtuerstood  liberty 
at  least,  as  well  as  we."  These  words  are  capable  of  two  differenf 
senses,  according  as  the  emphasis,  in  reading  tliem,  is  laid  upon 
liherti/,  or  uf)on  at  least.  The  words  should  have  been  thus  ar 
tanged :  "The  Romans  understood  liberty  as  well,  at  least,  as  we^^" 

"Theism  can  only  be  opposed  to  polytheism,  or  atheism."  Is 
it  fneant  that  theism  is  capable  of  nothing  else  besides  being 
opposed  to  polytheism,  or  atheism  ?  This  is  what  the  words 
literally  import,  through  the  wrong  placing  of  the  adverb  only. 
It  should  have  been,  **  Theism  can  be  opposed  only  to  polytheism 
or  atheism.'* 

*'  By  the  pleasures  of  the  imagination,  I  mean  only  such  plea- 
sures as  arise  originally  from  sight."  When  it  is  said,  **  I  mean 
only  such  pleasures^^'*  it  maybe  remarked,  that  the  adverb  only  is 
not  properly  placed.  It  is  not  intended  here  to  qualify  the  word 
mean,  but  such  pleasures  ;  and  therefore  should  have  been  placed 
in  as  close  connexion  as  possible  with  the  word  which  it  limits 
or  qualifies.  The  style  becomes  more  clear  and  neat,  when  the 
words  are  arranged  thus  :  "  By  the  pleasures  of  the  imagination, 
I  mean  such  pleasures  only  as  arise  from  sight." 

In  the  following  sentence,  the  word  more  is  not  in  its  proper 
place.  "  There  is  not,  perha[)s,  any  real  beauty  or  deformity 
^ore  in  one  piece  of  matter  than  another."    The  phrase  oughl 


i 


198  APPENDIX.  [Clkaeness 

to  have  stood  tlius  :  **  Beauty  or  deformity  in  one  ])ieco  of  matter 
more  than  in  another." 

2  In  the  position  of  circumstances,  and  of  particular  memhers. 

An  author,  in  his  dissertation  on  parties,  tlius  expresses  Itm 
self:  *' Are  these  designs  whioh  any  man,  who  is  horn  a  Brito 
in  any  circumstances,  in  any  situation,  ouglit  to  he  ashamed  oi 
afraid  to  avow  ?"  Here  we  are  left  at  a  loss,  whether  these  wordi 
'*in  any  circumstances,  in  any  situation,"  are  connected  with  *' 
man  born  in  Britain,  in  any  circumstances  or  situation,"  or  witiV 
that  man's  *'  avowing  his  designs  in  any  circumstances  or  »itua- 
tion  into  which  he  maybe  brought."  *'  As  it'is  probable  that  the 
latter  was  intended,  the  arrangement  ought  to  have  been  con- 
ducted thus:  *' Are  these  designs  which  any  man,  who  is  bora 
a  Briton,  ought  to  be  ashamed  or  afraid,  in  any  situation,  in  any 
circumstances,  to  avow  ?" 

The  following  is  another  instance  of  a  wrong  arrangement  of 
circumstances.  *' A  great  stone  that  I  happened  to  find,  after  a 
long  search,  by  the  sea  shore,  served  me  for  an  anchor."  One 
would  think  that  the  search  was  confined  to  the  sea  shore  ;  but 
as  the  meaning  is,  that  the  great  stone  was  found  by  the  sea 
shore,  the  period  ought  to  have  run  thus  :  "  A  great  stone,  that, 
after  a  long  search,  I  happened  to  find  by  the  sea  shore,  served 
me  for  an  anchor." 

It  is  a  rule,  too,  never  to  crowd  many  circumstances  together 
but  rather  to  intersperse  them  in  different  parts  of  the  sentence, 
joined  with  the  principal  words  on  which  they  depend.  For 
instance:  "What  I  had  the  opportunity  of  mentioning  to  my 
friend,  sometime  ago,  in  conversation,  was  not  a  new  thought." 
These  two  circumstances,  **  sompMme  ago,^  and  "  in  conversation,^^ 
which  are  here  put  together,  would  have  had  a  better  effect 
disjoined,  thus  :  **  What  I  had  the  opportunity,  sometime  ago,  of 
mentioning  to  my  friend  in  conversation,  w^as  not  a  new  thought." 

Here  follows  an  example  of  the  ^vrong  arrangement  of  a  mem- 
ber of  a  sentence.  *'  The  minister  of  state  who  grows  less  by 
his  elevation,  like  a  little  statue  placed  on  a  mighty  pedestal,  will 
always  have  his  jealousy  strong  about  him."  Here,  so  far  as 
can  be  gathered  from  the  arrangement,  it  is  doubtful  whether  the 
object  introduced,  by  way  of  simile,  relates  to  what  goes  before,  or 
to  what  follows.  The  ambiguity  is  removed  by  the  following  order. 
**  The  minister  of  state  who,  like  a  little  statue  placed  on  a  mighty 
pedestal,  grows  less  by'his  elevation,  will  always,"  &c. 

Words  expressing  things  connected  in  the  thought,  ought  to 
be  placed  as  near  together  as  possible,  even  when  their  separa- 
tion would  convey  no  ambiguity.  This  will  be  seen  in  the  fol- 
lowing passages  from  Addison.  "  For  the  English  are  naturally 
fanciful,  and  very  often  disposed  by  that  gloominess  and  melan- 
choly of  temper  which  are  so  frequent  in  our  nation,  to  many 
wild  notions  and  extravagancies,  to  which  others  are  not  so  hable." 
Here  the  vorb  or  assertion  is,  by  a  pretty  long  circumstance, 
separated  from  the  subject  to  whicb  it  refers.    TJiis  might  havo 


Clearness.]  PERSPICUITY,  &c.  199 

been  easily  prevented,  by  placing  the  ciiT.umstance  before  the 
verb,  thus  ;  "  For  the  English  are  naturally  fanciful,  and  by  that 
gloominess  and  melancholy  of  temper  which  are  so  frequent  in 
our  nation,  are  often  disposed  to  many  wild  notions,"  &c. 

"  For  as  no  morta'  author,  in  the  ordinary  fate  and  vicissitude 
of  things,  knows  to  what  use  his  works  may,  some  time  or  other, 
be  applied,"  &.c.  Better  thus  :  *'  For  as,  in  the  ordinary  fate  and 
vicissitude  of  thin-gs,  no  mortal  author  knows  to  what  use,  some 
time  or  other,  his  works  may  be  applied,"  &ic. 

From  these  examples,  tlie  folloAvini^  observations  will  occur: 
that  a  circumstance  ought  never  to  be  placed  between  two  capital 
iriBmbers  of  a  period  ;  but  either  between  the  parts  of  the  mem- 
ber to  which  it  belongs,  or  in  such  a  manner  as  will  confine  it  to 
its  proper  niember.  When  the  sense  admits  it,  the  sooner  a  cir- 
cumstance is  introduced,  generally  speaking,  the  better,  thattlie 
more  important  and  significant  words  may  possess  the  last  place, 
quite  disencumbered.  The  following  sentence  is,  in  this  respect, 
faulty.  "  The  emperor  was  so  intent  on  the  establishment  of  his 
absolute  power  in  Hungary,  that  he  exposed  the  empire  doubly 
to  desolation  and  ruin  for  the  sake  of  it."  Better  thus:  **  That, 
for  the  sake  of  it,  he  exposed  the  empire  doubly  to  desolation 
and  ruin." 

This  appears  to  be  a  proper  place  to  observe,  that  when  dif- 
ferent things  have  an  obvious  relation  to  each  other,  in  respect 
to  the  order  of  nature  or  time,  that  order  should  be  regarded,  in 
assigning  them  their  places  in  the  sentence  ;  unless  the  scope  of 
the  passages  require  it  to  be  varied.  The  conclusion  of  the 
following  hues  is  inaccurate  in  this  respect:  "But  still  there 
will  be  such  a  mixture  of  delight,  as  is  proportioned  to  the  de- 
gree in  which  any  one  of  these  qualifications  is  most  conspicu- 
ous and  prevaihng."  The  order  in  which  the  two  last  words 
are  placed,  should  have  been  reversed,  and  made  to  stand,  pre- 
vailing  and  conspicuous. — They  are  conspicuous,  because  they 
pi'evaiL 

The  following  sentence  is  a  beautiful  example  of  strict  con- 
formity to  this  rule.  "  Our  sight  fills  the  mind  with  the  largest 
variety  of  ideas,  converses  with  its  objects  at  the  greatest  dis- 
tance, and  continues  the  longest  in  action,  without  being  tired 
or  satiated  with  its  proper  enjoyments."  This  passage  follows  the 
order  of  nature.  First,  we  have  the  variety  of  objects  mentioned, 
which  sight  furnishes  to  the  mind ;  next,  we  have  the  action  ot 
sight  on  those  objects  ;  and  lastly,  we  have  tht,  time  and  continu 
ance  of  its  action.     No  order  could  be  more  natural  or  exact 

The  order  which  we  now  recommend,  is,  in  single  words  espe- 
cially, frequently  violated  for  the  sake  of  better  sound  ;  but, 
perhaps  in  no  instances,  without  a  deviation  from  the  line  of  strict 
propriety. 

3  J71  the  disposition  of  the  relative  pronouns^  who,  which,  what, 
whose,  ana  of  all  those  particles  tMch  express  the  conn€xi07i  of 
ihe  parts  of  speech  mth  one  another. 


200  APPENDIX.  [Clearness 

A  small  error  in  tlie  position  of  these  words  may  cloud  the 
meaning  of  tlio  whole  sentence  ;  and  even  where  the  meaning 
is  intelhgible,  we  always  find  something  awkward  and  disjointed 
in  the  structure  of  the  sentence,  when  these  relatives  are  out  of 
their  proper  place.  *'  This  kind  of  wit,"  says  an  author,  ♦*  svas 
very  much  in  vogue  among  our  conntnjmen,  about  an  age  or  two 
ago;  who  ^vd  not  practise  it  for  any  oblique  reason,  but  purely 
for  the  sake  of  being  witty.*'  We  are  at  no  loss  about  the  niean- 
ing  here  ;  but  the  construction  would  evidently  be  mended  by 
disposing  the  circumstance,  "  about  an  age  or  two  ago,''  in  such 
a  manner  as  not  to  separate  the  relative  who  from  its  antecedent 
our  countrymen ;  in  this  way:  *' About  an  age  or  two  ago,  this 
kind  of  wit  was  very  much  in  vogue  among  our  countrymen, 
who  did  not  practise  it,"  &c. 

The  following  passage  is  still  more  censurable.  "  It  is  follv 
to  pretend  to  arm  ourselves  against  the  accidents  of  life,  by  heap- 
ing up  treasures,  which  nothing  can  protect  us  against,  but  the 
good  providence  of  our  Creator."  Which  always  refers  grammati- 
cally to  the  substantive  immediately  preceding ;  and  that,  in  the 
instance  just  mentioned,  is  "  treasures."  The  sentence  ought  to 
have  stood  thus  :  **  It  is  folly  to  pretend,  by  heaping  up  treasures, 
to  arm  ourselves  against  the  accidents  of  hfe,  which  nothing  can 
protect  us  against,"  &c. 

With  regard  to  relatives,  it  may  be  further  observed  that 
obscurity  often  arises  from  the  too  frequent  repetition  of  them, 
particularly  of  the  pronouns  icho  and  they^  and  thtvi  and  theirs^ 
when  we  have  occasion  to  refer  to  different  persons ;  as  in  the 
following  sentence  of  Tillotson.  *'  Men  look  with  an  evil  eye 
upon  the  good  that  is  in  others,  and  think  that  their  reputation 
obscures  them^  and  their  commendable  qualities  stand  in  their 
light ;  and  therefore  they  do  what  they  can  to  cast  a  cloud  over 
them^  that  the  bright  shining  of  their  virtues  may  not  obscure 
them,'''*  This  is  altogeth-er  careless  writing.  When  we  find  these 
personal  pronouns  crowding  too  fast  upon  us,  we  have  often  no 
method  left,  but  to  throw  the  whole  sentence  into  some  other 
form,  which  may  avoid  those  frequent  references  to  persons  who 
have  before  been  mentioned. 

To  have  the. relation  of  every  word  and  member  of  a  sentence 
marked  in  the  most  proper  and  distinct  manner,  not  only  gives 
clearness  to  it,  but  makes  the  mind  pass  smoothly  and  agreeably 
along  all  the  parts  of  it. — See  the  Appendix  to  the  Exercises, 

CHAPTER  II.  OftheUnity  of  a  Sentence. 
The  second  requisite  of  a  perfect  sentence,  is  its  Unity, 
In  every  composition,  there  is  always  s6me  connecting  princi- 
ple among  the  parts.  Some  one  object  must  reign  and  be  pre- 
dominant. But  most  of  all,  in  a  single  sentence,  is  required  the 
strictest  unity.  For  the  v^ery  nature  of  a  sentence  implies  that  one 
proposition  is  expressed.  It  may  consist  of  parts,  indeed,  but 
these  parts  must  be  so  cloasly  bound  together,  as  to  make  the 


1 


UifiTT.]  PERSPICUITY,  &c  201 

impression  upon  the  mind  of  one  object,  not  of  many.  To  preserve 
this  unity  of  a  sentence,  the  following  rules  must  be  observed. 

In  the  first  place,  During  the  couise  of  the  sentence^  the  scene 
should  be  changtd  as  little  as  possible.  We  should  not  be  hurried 
by  sudden  transitions  from  person  to  person,  nor  from  subject  to  . 
subject.  There  is  commonly,  in  every  sentence,  some  person  or 
thing  which  is  tlie  governing  word.  This  should  be  continued 
80,  if  possible,  from  the  beginning  to  the  end  of  it. 

The  following  sentence  varies  from  this  rule  :  "  After  we  came 
to  anchor,  ihey  put  me  on  shore,  where  I  was  welcomed  by  all 
my  friends,  who  received  me  with  the  greatest  kindness."  In 
this  sentence,  though  the  objects  contained  in  it  have  a  sufficient 
connexion  with  each  other,  yet,  by  this  manner  of  representing 
them,  by  shifting  so  often  both  the  place  and  the  person,  we  and 
^/icy,  and  /and  ivho,  they  appear  in  so  disunited  a  view,  that  the 
sense  of  connexion  is  much  impaired.  Tiie  sentence  is  restored  to 
its  proper  unity,  by  turning  it  after  the  following  njanner.  "Having 
come  to  an  anchor,  I  was  put  on  shore,  where  I  was  welcomed 
by  all  my  friends,  and  received  witli  the  greatest  kindness.'* 

Here  follows  another  instance  of  departure  from  the  rule. 
**  The  sultan  being  dangerously  wounded,  they  carried  him  to  hi» 
tent ;  and,  upon  hearing  of  the  defeat  of  his  troops,  they  put  him 
into  a  litter,  which  transported  him  to  a  place  of  safety,  at  the 
distance  of  about  fifteen  leagues."  Better  thus:  "The  sultan 
being  dangerously  wounded,  was  carried  to  his  tent ;  and,  on 
bearing  of  the  defeat  of  his  troops,  was  put  into  a  litter,  and 
transported  to  a  place  oraafety  about  fifteen  leagues  distant." 

A  second  rule  under  the  head  of  unity,  is,  JVever  to  croiod  into 
one  sentence,  things  which  have  so  little  connexion,  that  they  could 
bear  to  be  divided  into  two  or  three  sentences. 

The  violation  of  this  rule  tends  so  nmch  to  perplex  and  ob- 
scure, that  it  is  safer  to  err  by  too  many  short  sentences,  than  by 
one  that  is  overloaded  and  embarrassed.  Examples  abound 
in  authors.  "Archbishop  Tillotr^on,"  says  an  author,  "died  hi 
this  year.  He  was  exceedingly  beloved  by  king  William  and 
queen  Mary,  who  nominated  l)r.  Tennison,  bishop  of  Lincoln, 
to  succeed  liim."  Who  would  expect  the  latter  part  of  this  sen- 
tence to  follow  in  consequence  of  the  former?  '*  He  was  exceed- 
ingly beloved  by  both  king  and  queen,"  is  the  proposition  of  the 
sentence.  We  look  for  some  proof  of  this,  or  at  least  something 
related  to  it,  to  follow ;  when  we  are  on  a  sudden  carried  off  to 
a  new  proposition. 

The  following  sentence  is  still  worse.  The  author,  speaking 
of  the  Greeks  under  Alexander,  says:  "Their  march  was 
through  an  uncultivated  country,  whose  savage  inhabitants  fared 
liardl\%  having  no  other  riches  than  a  breed  of  lean  sheep,  whose 
flesh  was  rank  and  unsavoury,  by  reason  of  their  continual  feed- 
mg  upon  sea-fish."  Here  the  scene  is  changed  upon  us  again 
and  again.  The  march  of  the  Greeks,  the  description  of  the  in- 
habitants through  whose  country  they  travelled,  the  account  of 


202  APPENDIX.  [IJnitt 

their  sheep,  find  the  cause  of  their  sheep  being  ill-tasted  food, 
form  a  jumble  of  objects,  slightly  related  to  each  other,  which 
the  reader  cannot,  without  much  difficulty,  comprehend  unde 
one  view. 

These  examples  have  been  taken  from  sentences  of  no  greai 
length,  yet  very  crowded.  Writers  v/ho  deal  in  long  sentences^ 
are  very  apt  to  be. faulty  in  this  article.  Take,  for  an  instance, 
the  following  from  Temple.  *'  The  usual  acceptation  takes  profit 
and  pleasure  for  two  different  things,  and  not  only  calls  the  fol- 
lowers or  votaries  of  them  by  the  several  names  of  busy  and  idle 
men  ;  but  distinguishes  the  faculties  of  the  mind,  that  are  con- 
versant about  them,  caUing  the  operations  of  the  first,  Wisdom  ; 
and  of  the  other,  Wit;  which  is  a  Saxon  word,  used  to  express 
what  the  Spaniards  and  Italians  call  Ingenio,  and  the  French 
Esprit,  both  from  the  Latin,  though  I  think  wit  more  particularly 
signifies  that  of  poetry,  as  may  occur  in  remarks  on  the  Runic 
language."  When  the  reader  arriv^es  at  the  end  of  this  perplexed 
sentence,  lie  is  surprised  to  find  himself  at  so  great  distance  from 
the  object  with  which  he  set  out. 

Long,  involved,  and  intricate  sentences,  are  great  blemishes 
m  composition.  In  writers  of  considerable  correctness,  we  find  a 
period  sometimes  running  out  so  far,  and  comprehending  so  many 
particulars,  as  to  be  more  properly  a  discourse  than  a  sentence. 
An  author,  speaking  of  the  j)rogress  of  our  languge  after  the  time 
of  Cromwell,  runs  on  in  this  manner  :  "  To  this  succeeded  that 
licentiousness  which  entered  with  the  restoration,  and,  from  in- 
fecting our  religion  and  morals,  fell  to  corrupt  our  language ;  which 
last  was  not  like  to  be  much  improved  by  those  who  at  that  time 
made  up  the  court  of  king  Charles  the  Second;  either  such  as  had 
followed  him  in  his  banishment,  or  who  had  been  altogether  con- 
versant in  the  dialect  of  these  times,  or  young  men  who  had  been 
educated  in  the  same  country :  so  that  the  court,  which  used  to  be 
the  standard  of  correctness  and  propriety  of  speech,  was  then,  and 
I  think  has  ever  since  continued,  the  worst  school  in  England  for 
that  accomplishment ;  and  so  will  remain,  till  better  care  be 
taken  in  the  education  of  our  nobility,  that  they  may  set  out  into 
the  world  with  some  foundation  of  Uterature,  in  order  to  qualify 
them  for  patterns  of  politeness." 

The  author,  in  place  of  a  sentence,  has  here  given  a  loose 
dissertation  upon  several  subjects.  How  many  difl)3rent  facts, 
reasonings,  and  observations,  are  here  presented  to  the  mind  at 
once!  and  yet  so  linked  together  by  the  author,  that  they  aK 
make  parts  of  n  sentence,  which  admits  of  no  greater  division  in 
pointing  than  a  colon,  between  any  of  its  members. 

It  may  be  of  use  here  to  give  a  si)ecimen  of  a  iong  sentence, 
broken  down  into  several  periods ;  by  which  we  shall  more 
clearly  perceive  the  disadvantages  of  long  sentences,  and  how 
easily  they  may  be  amended.  Here  follows  the  sentence  in  its 
original  form :  "  Though  in  yesterday's  paper  we  showed  how 
every  thing  that  is  great,  new,  or  beautiful,  is  apt  to  affect  thw 


Unitt.]  perspicuity,  &c.  203 

imagination  with  jileasurc,  we  must  own,  that  it  is  impossible  for 
US  to  assign  the  necessary  cause  of  this  i»leasure,  because  we 
know  neither  the  nature  of  an  idea,  nor  the  substance  of  a  human 
soul  :  and  therefore,  for  want  of  such  a  light,  all  that  we  can  do, 
in  speculations  of  this  kind,  is,  to  reflect  on  those  operations  of 
the  soul  that  are  most  agreeable  ;  and  to  range,  under  their  pro- 
per iieads,  what  is  pleasing  or  displeasing  to  the  mind,  without 
l)eing  able  to  trace  out  the  several  necessary  and  efficient  causes, 
I'rom  whence  the  pleasure  or  displeasure  arises/* 

The  following  amendment,  besides  breaking  down  the  period 
:nto  several  sentences,  exhibits  some  other  useful  alterations: 
**  In  yesterday's  pa})er,  we  showed  that  every  thing  which  is  great, 
new,  or  beautiful,  is  apt  to  affect  the  imagination  with  pleasure. 
We  must  own,  that  it  is  impossible  for  us  to  assign  the  efficient 
cause  of  this  pleasure,  because  we  know  not  the  nature  either 
of  an  idea,  or  of  the  human  soul.  All  that  we  can  do,  therefore, 
in  speculations  of  this  kind,  is  to  reflect  on  the  operations  of  the 
soul  which  are  most  agreeable,  and  to  range  under  proper  heads 
what  is  pleasing  or  displeasing  to  the  mind.'* 

A  third  rule  for  preserving  the  unity  of  sentences,  is,  to  keep 
clear  of  all  unnecessary  parentheses. 

On  some  occasions,  when  the  sense  is  not  too  long  suspended 
by  them,  and  when  they  are  introduced  in  a  proper  place,  they 
may  add  both  to  the  vivacity  and  to  the  energy  of  the  sentence. 
But  for  the  most  part  their  effect  is  extremely  bad.  They  are 
wheels  within  wheels  ;  sentences  in  the  midst  of  sentences  ;  the 
•erplexed  method  of  disposing  of  some  thought,  which  a  writer 
ft'ants  judgment  to  introduce  in  its  proper  place. 

The  parenthesis  in  this  sentence  is  striking  and  proper  ; 
"  And  was  the  ransom  paid  ?  It  was  ;  and  paid 
"  (What  can  exalt  the  bounty  more  ?)  for  thee." 
But  in  the  following  sentence,  we  become  sensible  of  an  impro 
priety  in  the  use  of  it.     **  If  your  hearts  secretly  reproach  you 
for  the  wrong  choice  you  have  made,  (as  there  is  time  for  repent- 
ance and  retreat ;  and  a  return  to  wisdom  is  always  honoura- 
ble,) bethink  yourselves  that  the  evil  is  not  irreparable."     It 
would  be  much  better  to  express  in  a  separate  sentence,  the 
'  thoughts  contained  in  this  parenthesis  ;  thus:  **  If  your  hearts 
secretly  reproach  you  for  the  wrong  choice  you  have  made,  be- 
think yourselves  that  the  evil  is  not  irreparable.     Still  there  is 
time  for  repentance  and  retreat ;  and  a  return  to  wisdom  is  always 
honourable." — See  the  Appendix  to  the  Exercises, 

CHAPTER  III.     Of  the  Strength  of  a  Sentence, 
The  third  requisite  of  a  perfect  sentence,  is.  Strength, 
By  this  is  meant  such  a  disposition  and  management  of  the 
several  words  and  members,  as  shall  bring  out  the  sense  to  the 
best  advantage,  and  give  every  word  and  every  member,  its  due 
weight  and  force. 
A  sentence  may  be  clear,  it  may  also  be  compact  in  all  its  p^rts, 


204  APPENDIX.  [Stre.xcth 

or  have  the  requisite  unity,  and  yet,  hy  some  circumstance  in  the 
structure,  it  may  fail  in  tiiat  strengtli  of  impression,  which  a  better 
management  won  hi  have  profluced. 

Thejlrst  rule  for  ])romoting  the  strength  of  a  sentence  is,  t4 
prune  it  of  all  redundant  words  and  members. 

It  is  a  genera]  maxim,  that  any  words  which  do  not  add  somo 
importance  to  the  meaning  of  a  sentence,  always  injure  it.  Care 
should  therefore  be  exercised  \vith  respect  to  synonymous  words, 
expletives,  circumlocutions,  tautologies,  and  the  expressions  cf 
unnecessary  circumstances.  The  attention  becomes  remiss,  when 
words  are  multiplied  without  a  correspondent  multiplication  of 
deas.  *'  Content  with  deserving  a  triumph,  he  refused  the  honour 
of  it ;"  is  better  language  than  to  say,  "  Being  content  with  de- 
serving it,"  &c. 

*'  In  the  Attic  commonwealth,"  says  an  author,  "  it  was  the 
privilege  and  birthright  of  every  citizen  and  poet,  to  rail  aloud  and 
in  public."  Better  simply  thus  :  "  In  ihe  Attic  commonwealth,  it 
was  the  privilege  of  every  citizen  to  rail  in  public." 

Another  expresses  himself  thus  :  *'  They  returned  back  again 
to  the  same  city  from  whence  the}'^  came  forth  ;"  instead  of, 
'*  They  returned  to  the  city  whence  they  came."  llie  five  words, 
hack,  again,  same,  from,  and  forth,  are  mere  expletives,  that  have 
neither  use  nor  beauty,  and  are  therefore  to  be  regarded  aa 
encumbrances. 

The  word  but  is  often  improperly  used  with  that :  as,  "  There 
can  be  no  doubt  but  that  he  seriously  means  what  he  says."  It 
is  nort  only  useless,  but  cumbersome  :  *'  There  can  be  no  doubt 
that  he  seriously  means  what  he  says."  By  transposing  the  parts 
of  the  sentence,  we  shall  immediately  yierceive  the  propriety  of 
omitting  this  word :  "  That  he  seriously  means  what  he  says, 
there  can  be  no  doubt." 

*•  I  am  honestly,  seriously,  and  unalterably  of  opinion,  that 
nothing  can  possibly  be  more  incurably  and  emphatically  de- 
structive, or  more  decisively  fatal,  to  a  kingdom,  than  the  intro- 
duction of  thoughtless  dissipation,  and  the  pomp  of  lazy  luxury." 
Would  not  the  full  import  of  this  noisy  sentence  be  better  ex- 
pressed thus:  "  I  am  of  opinion,  that  nothing  is  more  ruinous  to 
a  kingdom,  than  luxury  and  dissipation." 

Some  writers  use  much  circumlocution  in  expressing  their 
ideas.  A  considerable  one,  for  so  very  simple  a  thing  as  a  man's 
wounding  himself,  says,  "  To  mangle,  oj*  wound,  his  outward 
form  and  constitution,  his  natural  limbs  or  body." 

But,  on  some  occasions,  circumlocution  has  a  peculiar  force  ; 
as  in  the  following  sentence :  *'  Shall  not  the  Judge  of  all  the  earth 
do  right  ?"  *<» 

In  the  sentences  which  follow,  the  ill  effects  of  tautology  appear, 

'*  So  it  is,  that  I  must  be  forced  to  get  home,  partly  by  stealth, 
and  partly  by /orcc." 

"  Never  did  Atticus  succeed  better  in  gaining  the  universal  love 
and  esteem  of  all  men." 


The  subsequent  sentence  contains  several  unnecessary  circum- 
stances. **  On  receiving  this  inlbrnjation,  lie  arorse,  went  out, 
saddled  his  horse,  mounted  him,  and  rode  to  town."  Ail  is  im- 
plied in  saying,  "On  receiving  this  information,  he  rode  to 
town.'* 

This  manner,  however,  in  a  certain  degree,  is  so  strongly  cha- 
racteristic of  the  simple  style  of  remote  ages,  that,  in  books  of 
the  highest  antiquity,  particularly  the  Bible,  it  is  not  at  all  un- 
graceful. Of  this  kind  are  the  following  scriptural  phrases. 
■  He  lifted  up  his  voice,  and  wept.'*  '*  Pie  opened  his  mouth, 
a?:d  said."  It  is  true,  that,  in  strictness,  they  are  not  necessary 
to  tbe  narration,  but  they  are  of  some  importance  to  the  compo- 
sition as  bearing  the  venerable  signature  of  ancient  simplicity. 
It  may,  -^n  this  occasion,  be  further  observed,  that  the  language 
of  the  present  translation  of  the  Bible,  ought  not  to  be  viewed 
in  an  exceptionable  light,  though  some  parts  of  it  may  appear  to 
I.e  obsolete.  From  universal  admission,  this  language  has  be- 
come so  familiar  and  intelligible,  that  in  all  transcripts  and  allu- 
sicns,  except  where  the  sense  is  evidently  injured,  it  ought  to  be 
caiefuliy  preserved.  And  it  may  also  be  justly  remarked,  that, 
on  leligious  subjects,  a  frequent  recurrence  of  scripture-language 
is  attended  with  peculiar  force  and  propriety. 

Though  it  promotes  the  strength  of  a  sentence,  to  contract  a 
round-xbout  method  of  expression,  and  to  lop  off  excrescences, 
yet  we  should  avoid  the  extreme  of  pruning  too  closely  :  some 
leaves  should  be  left  to  shelter  and  surround  the  fruit.  Even 
synonym  JUS  expressions  may,  on  some  occasions,  be  used  with 
propriety.  One  is,  when  an  obscurer  term,  which  we  cannot 
well  avoid  employing,  needs  to  be  explained  by  one  that  is  clearer. 
The  other  is,  when  the  language  of  the  emotions  is  exhibited. 
Emotion  naturally  dwells  on  its  object,  and  when  the  reader  also 
feels  interested,  repetition  and  synonymy  have  frequently  an 
agreeable  effect. 

The  following  passage,  taken  from  Addison,  who  delighted  in 
B  full  and  flowing  style,  may,  by  some  persons,  be  deemed  not 
vej-y  exceptionable.  *'  But  there  is  nothing  that  makes  its  way 
more  directly  to  the  soul  than  beauty,  which  immediately  diffuses 
a  s»'.cret  satisfaction  and  complacency  through  the  imagination, 
and  gives  a  finishing  to  any  thing  that  is  great  or  uncommon 
The  very  first  discovery  of  it  strikes  the  mind  with  inward  joy, 
and  spreads  a  cheerfulness  and  delight  through  all  its  faculties." 
Some  degree  of  verbosity  may  be  discovered  in  these  sentences, 
as  phrases  are  repeated  which  seem  little  more  than  the  echo  of 
one  another ;  such  as — diffusing  satisfaction  and  comjilacency 
through  the  imagination — striking  the  mind  ivith  inioard  joy — 
^tpreading  cheerfulness  and  delight  through  all  its  faculties.  But, 
perhaps,  some  redundancyls  more  allowable  on  such  lively  sub- 
jects, than  it  would  ^e  on  Other  occasions. 

After  removing  superfluities,  the  second  rule  for  promoting  the 
strength  of  a  t^entence,  is,  to  attend  particularhi  to  the  use  ofcopula" 

S 


206  APPENDIX.  [Strenot 


I 


iives,  relatives^  and  all  the  particles  employed  for  transition  a\ 
connexion. 

These  little  words,  hut,  nnd^  or,  tvhicJi,  ivhose^  ivhere,  then,  there- 
fore, because,  &c.  are  frequently  the  most  important  words  of  any  , 
they  are  the  joints  or  hinges  upon  which  all  sentence.'^  turn  ;  and, 
cf  course,  much  of  their  strength  must  depend  upon  such  parti- 
cles. The  varieties  in  using  them  are,  indeed,  so  many,  that  no 
particular  system  of  rules  respecting  them  can  be  given.  Some 
observations,  tending  to  illustrate  the  rule,  may,  however,  ht 
mentioned. 

What  is  called  splitting  particles,  or  separating  a  preposition 
from  the  noua  which  it  governs,  is  to  be  avoided.  As  if  I  should 
say,  "  Though  virtue  borrows  no  assistance  from,  yet  it  may  often 
be  accompanied  by,  the  advantages  of  fortune."  Here  we  are  put 
to  a  stand  in  thought,  being  obliged  to  rest  a  little  on  the  prepo- 
sition by  itself,  which,  at  the  same  time,  carries  no  significancy, 
till  it  is  joined  to  its  proper  substantive. 

Some  writers  needlessly  multiply  demonstrative  and  relative 
particles,  by  the  frequent  use  of  such  phraseology  as  this:  **  There 
is  nothing  which  disgusts  us  sooner  than  the  empty  pomp  of  lan- 
guage." In  introducing  a  subject,  or  laying  down  a  proposition, 
to  which  we  demand  particular  attention,  this  sort  of  style  is 
very  proper ;  but,  on  common  occasions,  it  is  better  to  express 
ourselves  more  simply  and  briefly  :  '*  Nothing  disgusts  us  sooner 
than  the  empty  pomp  of  language." 

Other  writers  make  a  practice  of  omitting  the  relative,  where 
they  think  the  meaning  can  be  understood  without  it :  as,  **  The 
man  I  love ;"  *'  The  dominions  we  possessed,  and  the  conquests 
we  made."  But  though  this  elliptical  style  is  intelligible,  and  is 
allowable  in  conversation  and  epistolary  writingj  yet  in  all  wri- 
tings of  a  serious  and  dignified  kind,  it  ought  to  be  avoided.  There, 
the  relative  should  always  be  inserted  in  its  proper  place,  and 
the  construction  filled  up.  *'  The  man  whom  I  love."  **  The 
dominions  which  we  possessed,  and  the  conquests  which  we 
made." 

With  regard  to  the  copulative  particle  and,  which  occurs  so 
frequently  in  all  kinds  of  composition,  several  observations  are 
to  be  made.  First,  it  is  evident,  that  the  unnecessary  repetition 
of  it  enfeebles  style.  The  following  sentence  from  Sir  William 
Temple,  will  serve  for  an  instance.  He  is  speaking  of  the  re- 
finement of  the  French  language :  *'  The  academy,  set  up  by 
Cardinal  Richelieu,  to  amuse  the  wits  of  that  age  and  country, 
and  divert  them  from  raking  into  his  politics  and  ministry, 
brought  this  into  vogue  ;  and  the  French  wits  have,  for  this  last 
age,  been  wholly  turned  to  the  refinement  of  their  style  and  lan- 
guage ;  and,  indeed,  with  such  success,  that  it  can  hardly  be 
equalled,  and  runs  equally  through  their  verse  and  their  prose." 
Here  are  no  fewer  thaa  eight  ands  in  on**  sentence.  Some 
writers  often  make  their  sentences  drag  in  this  manner,  by  a 
careless  multiplication  of  copulatives. 


Strength.]  PERSPICUITY,  &c.  207 

liut,  in  the  next  place,  it  is  worthy  of  observation,  thai  tliou^h 
tlie  natural  use  of  the  conjunction  and^  is  to  join  objects  together, 
yet,  in  fact,  by  dropping  the  conjunction,  we  often  mark  a  closer 
connexion,  a  quicker  succession  of  objects,  t'lan  when  it  is  in- 
serted between  them.  "  I  came,  I  saw,  1  conquered,"  expresses 
*vith  more  force  the  rapidity  and  quick  succession  of  conquest, 
than  if  connecting"  particles  had  been  used. 

On  the  other  hand,  when  we  seek  to  prevent  a  quick  transi 
lion  from  one  object  to  another,  when  we  are  making  some  ejiu 
nieration,  in  which  we  wish  that  the  objects  should  appear  as 
distinct  from  each  other  as  possible,  and  that  the  mind  should 
rest,  for  a  moment,  on  each  object  by  itself,  copulatives  may  be 
multipHed  with  peculiar  advantage.  As  when  an  author  says, 
"Such  a  man  might  fall  a  victim  to  power;  but  truth,  and  rea 
son,  and  liberty,  would  fall  with  him."  Observe,  in  the  following 
enumeration  made  by  the  Apostle  Paul,  what  additional  weight 
and  distinctness  are  given  to  each  particular,  by  the  repetition 
of  a  conjunction  :  "  I  am  persuaded  that  neither  death,  nor  life, 
nor  angels,  nor  principalities,  nor  powers,  nor  things  present,  noi 
things  to  come,  nor  height,  nor  depth,  nor  any  other  creature, 
shall  be  able  to  separate  us  from  the  love  of  God." 

The  words  designed  to  mark  the  transition  from  one  sentence 
to  another,  and  the  connexion  between  sentences,  are  sometimes 
very  incorrect,  and  perform  their  office  in  an  imperfect  and  ob- 
scure manner.  The  following  is  an  example  of  this  kind  o1 
inaccuracy.  "  By  greatness,  I  do  not  mean  the  bulk  of  any 
single  object  only,  but  the  largeness  of  a  whole  view.  Such  are 
the  prospects  of  an  open  champaign  country,  a  vast  uncultivated 
desert,"  &c.  The  word  such  signifies  of  that  nature  or  quality, 
which  necessarily  presupposes  some  adjectiv^e  or  word  descrip- 
tive of  a  quality  going  before,  to  which  it  refers.  But,  in  the 
foregoing  sentence,  there  is  no  such  adjective.  The  author  had 
spoken  of  greatness  in  the  abstract  only  ;  and,  therefore,  such 
has  no  distinct  antecedent  to  which  we  can  i-^fer  it.  The  sentence 
would  have  been  introduced  with  more  propriety,  by  saying,  To 
this  class  belong,  or  under  this  head  are  ranged,  the  prospects,  &c. 

As  connective  prirticles  are  the  hinges,  tacks,  and  pins,  by 
which  the  words  in  the  w«ame  clause,  the  clauses  in  the  same 
mend)er,  the  members  in  the  same  sentence,  and  even  the  sen- 
tences in  the  same  discourse,  are  united  together,  and  their  rela 
tions  suggested,  so  they  should  not  be  either  too  frequently  re 
peated,  awkwardly  exposed  to  view,  or  made  up  of  polysyllables, 
when  shorter  words  would  as  well  convey  the  meaning.  JVoi- 
withstanding  that,  inscmitch  that,  forasmuch  as,  furthermore,  &c. 
are  tedious  words,which  tend  to  overload  and  perplex  a  sentence. 
We  shall  conclude  this  head  with  two  remarks  on  the  subject 
of  inserting  or  omitting  the  conjunctions.  The  first  is,  that  the 
illative  ^conjunctions,  the  casual,  and  the  disjunctive,  when  they 
8ui*  ^he  sense,  can  more  rarely  be  dispensed  with  than  the  copu- 
latW^i      The  second  is,  that  the  omission  of  copulatives  always 


succeeds  best,  when  the  connejLion  of  the  thoughts  is  citlier  verjBI 
close,  or  very  distant.     It  is  mostly  in  the  intermediate  cases  tha?" 
the  conjunction  is  deemed  necessary.     WJien  the  connexion  in 
thought  is  very  distant,  the  copulative  appears  absurd  ;  and  when 
very  close,  superfluous. 

The  third  rule  for  promoting  the  strength  of  a  sentence,  is,  io 
dispose  of  the  capital  wordy  or  words ^  so  that  they  mafy  make  the 
greatest  impression. 

That  there  are,  in  every  sentence,  such  capital  words  on  which 
the  meaning  principally  rests,  every  one  must  see ;  and  that  these 
words  should  possess  a  conspicuous  and  distinguished  place,  is 
equally  plain.  For  the  most  part,  with  us,  the  important  words  are 
placed  in  the  beginning  of  the  sentence.  So  in  the  following  pas- 
sages :  *' Silver  and  gold  have  T  none;  but  such  as  I  have,  give 
I  unto  thee,"  &c.  **  Your  fathers,  where  are  they?  and  the  pro- 
phets, do  they  live  for  ever.^'* 

Sometimes,  however,  when  we  intend  to  give  weight  to  a  sen 
ten?.e,  it  is  of  advantage  to  suspend  the  meaning  for  a  little,  and 
then  bring  it  out  full  at  the  close.  "Thus,'*  says  an  author,  "on 
whatever  side  we  contemplate  this  ancient  writer,  what  principal- 
ly strikes  us,  is  his  wonderful  invention.'* 

To  accomplish  this  end,  the  placing  of  capital  words  in  a  con 
spicuous  part  of  the  sentence,  the  natural  order  of  our  language 
must  sometimes  be  inverted.  According  to  this  natural  order, 
the  nominative  has  the  first  place,  the  verb  the  second,  and  the 
objective,  if  it  be  an  active  verb  that  is  employed,  has  the  third 
Circumstances  follow  the  nominative,  the  verb,  or  the  objective 
as  they  happen  to  belong  to  any  of  them.  **  Diana  of  the  Ephe- 
sians  is  great,"  is  the  natural  order  of  the  sentence.  But  its 
strength  is  increased  by  inversion,  thus :  "  Great  is  Diana  of  the 
Ephesians."  "  I  profess,  in  the  sincerity  of  my  heart,"  Sz-c.  is  , 
the  natural  order  of  a  circumstance.  Inverted  thus:  "In  the 
sincerity  of  my  heart,  I  profess,"  &c. 

Some  authors  greatly  invert  the  natural  order  of  sentences , 
others  write  mostly  in  a  natural  style.  Each  method  has  its  ad- 
vantages. The  inverted  possesses  strength,  dignity,  and  varie- 
ty :  the  other,  more  nature-,  ease,  and  siraplif  ity.  We  shall  give 
an  instance  of  each  method,  taken  from  writers  of  considerable 
eminence.  The  first  is  of  the  inverted  order.  The  author  ia 
speaking  of  the  misery  of  vice.  "This,  as  to  the  complete  im- 
moral state,  is,  what  of  their  own  accord,  men  readily  remark. 
Where  there  is  this  absolute  degeneracy,  this  total  apostacy  from 
all  candour,  truth,  or  equity,  there  are  few  who  do  not  see  and 
acknowledge  the  misery  which  is  consequent.  Seldom  is  the 
case  misconstrued  when  at  worst.  The  misfortune  is,  that  we 
look  not  on  this  depravity,  nor  consider  how  it  stands  in  l«ss  de. 
grees.  As  if,  to  be  absolutely  immoral,  were,  indeed,  the  great- 
est misery  ;  but  to  be  so  in  a  little  degree,  should  be  no  misery  oi 
harm  at  all.  Which,  to  allow,  is  just  as  reasonable  as  to  own, 
that  it  is  the  greatest  ill  of  a  body  to  be  in  the  utmost  manner 


feTRE.^GTn.]  rERSPICUlTY,  iS^-.  209 

maimed  or  distorted;  but  that  to  lose  the  use  only  of  one  limb, 
or  to  be  impaired  in  some  single  or«^an  or  member,  is  no  ill  wor 
thy  the  least  notice."  Mere  is  no  violence  done  to  the  language 
though  there  are  many  inversions. 

The  following  is  an  example  of  natural  construction:  "Our 
sight  is  the  most  perfect,  and  the  most  delightful,  ofall  our  senses. 
It  fills  the  mind  with  the  largest  variety  of  ideas,  converses  with 
its  objects  at  the  greatest  distance,  and  continues  the  longest  in 
auction,  without  being  tired,  or  satiated  with  its  proper  enjoyment?. 
The  sense  of  feeling  can,  indeed,  give  us  a  notion  of  extension, 
ehape,  and  all  other  ideas  that  enter  at  the  eye,  except  colours; 
but,  at  the  same  time,  it  is  ver;/  much  straitened  and  confined  in 
its  operations,''  &c. 

But  whether  we  use  inversion  or  not,  and  in  whatever  part  of 
the  sentence  we  dispose  of  the  capital  words,  it  is  always  a  point 
of  consequence,  that  these  capital  words  should  stand  clear  anj 
disentangled  from  any  other  words  that  would  clog  them.  Thus, 
when  there  are  any  circumstances  of  time,  place,  or  other  limita- 
tions, which  the  principal  object  of  our  sentence  requires  to  have 
connected  with  it,  we  must  take  care  to  dispose  of  them,  so  as 
not  to  cloud  that  principal  object,  nor  to  bury  it  under  a  load  of 
circumstances.  This  will  be  made  clearer  by  an  example.  ''  If, 
whilst  they  profess  only  to  please,  they  secretly  advise,  and  give 
instruction,  they  may  now  perhaps,  as  well  as  formerly,  be  es- 
teemed, with  justice,  the  best  and  most  honourable  among  au- 
thors." This  a  well  constructed  sentence.  It  contains  a  great 
many  circumstances  and  adverbs  necessary  to  qualify  the  mean- 
ing ;  only,  secretly^  as  well,  pei'haps^  now,  toiih  justice,  formerly ; 
yet  these  are  placed  so  properly,  as  neither  to  embarrass,  nor 
weaken  the  sentence  ;  while  that  which  is  the  capital  object  in  it, 
viz.  "being  justly  esteemed  the  best  and  most  honourable  among 
authors,"  comes  out  in  the  conclusion  clear  and  detached,  and 
possesvses  its  proper  place.  See,  now,  what  would  have  been  the 
effect  of  a  different  arrangement:  '*  If,  whilst  they  profess  to 
please  only,  they  advise  and  give  instruction  secretly,  they  may 
he  esteemed  the  best  and  most  honourable  among  authors,  witli 
justice,  peihaps,  now  as  well  as  formerly."  Here  we  have  pre- 
cisely the  same  words,  and  the  same  sense ;  but  by  means  of  tJie 
circumstances  being  so  intermingled  as  to  clog  the  capital  words, 
the  whole  becomes  feeble  and  perplexed. 

The  fvurth  rule  for  promoting  the  strength  of  sentences,  is, 
that  a  weaker  assertion  or  proposition  should  never  come  after  a 
stronger  one ;  and  that,  when  our  sentence  consists  of  two  members, 
the  longer  should,  s^enerally,  he  the  concluding  one. 

Thus,  to  say,  "When  our  passions  have  forsaken  us,  we  flatter 
ourselves  with  the  belief  that  we  have  forsaken  them,"  is  both 
more  easy  and  more  clear,  than  to  begin  with  the  longer  part  of 
the  proposition:  "We  flatter  ourselves  with  the  belief  that  we 
have  forsaken  our  passions,  when  they  have  forsaken  us." 

In  general,  it  is  agreeable  to  find  a  sentence  rising  upon  us. 
S  2 


210  APPENDIX.  rSTRENGT«^ 

and  growing  in  its  importance,  to  the  very  last  word,  when  this 
construction  can  be  managed  without  affectation.  **  If  we  rise 
yet  higher,"  says  Addison,  "  and  consider  the  fixed  stars  as  so 
many  oceans  of  flame,  that  are  each  of  them  attended  with  a  di^g|| 
ferent  set  of  planets ;  and  still  discover  new  firmaments  and  neiJ^P^ 
lights  that  are  sunk  further  in  those  unfathomable  depths  of 
ether :  we  are  lost  in  such  a  labyrinth  of  suns  and  worlds,  and 
confounded  with  the  magnificence  and  immensity  of  nature." 

Thejijlk  rule  for  the  strength  of  sentences  is,  io  avoid  condudin^ 
them  with  an  adverb,  a  preposition,  or  any  inconsiderable  word. 

Agreeably  to  this  rule,  we  should  not  conclude  with  any  of  the 
particles,  of,  to,  -from,  with,  by.  For  instance,  it  is  a  great  deal 
better  to  say,  "Avarice  is  a  crime  of  which  wise  men  are  often 
guilty,"  than  to  say, "  Avarice  is  a  crime  which  wise  men  are 
often  guilty  of"  This  is  a  phraseology  which  all  correct  writers 
shun;  and  with  reason.  For  as  the  mind  cannot  help  resting  a 
little,  on  the  import  of  the  word  which  closes  the  sentence,  it 
must  be  disagreeable  to  be  left  pausing  on  a  word,  which  does 
not,  by  itself,  produce  any  idea. 

For  the  same  reason,  verbs  which  are  used  in  a  compound 
tense,  with  some  of  these  prepositions,  are,  though  not  so  bad^ 
yet  still  not  proper  conclusions  of  a  period  :  such  as,  bring  about, 
lay  hold  of,  come  over  to,  clear  up,  and  many  other  of  this  kind 
instead  of  which,  if  we  can  employ  a  simple  verb,  it  always  tcr 
minntes  the  sentence  with  more  strength.  Even  the  pronoun  tV, 
should,  if  possible,  be  avoided  in  the  conclusion:  especially  >*'heij 
it  is  joined  with  some  of  the  prepositions  ;  as,  with  it,  in  it,  to  it. 
We  shall  be  sensible  of  this  in  the  following  sentence.  *'  There 
is  not,  in  my  opinion,  a  more  pleasing  and  triumphant  considera- 
tion in  religion,  th-'n  this,  of  the  perpetual  progress  which  ilie 
soul  makes  towards  the  perfection  of  its  nature,  without  ever  ar- 
riving at  a  period  in  it.^*  Ho»v  much  more  agreeaoic  the  sen- 
tence, if  it  had  been  so  constructed  as  to  close  with  the  word 
period ! 

Besides  particles  and  pronouns,  any  phrase,  f/hich  expresses 
a  circumstance  only,  always  appears  badly  in  die  rear  of  a  sen- 
tence.    We  may  judge  of  this  by  the  followwig  passage  :  "  Let 
me  therefore  conclude  by  repeating,  that  division  has  caused  all 
the  mischief  we  lament;  that  union  alone  can  retrieve  it;    and 
that  a  great  advance  towards  this  union,  was  the  coalition  of 
parties,  so  happily  begun,  so  successfully  carried  on,  and  of  lat»H 
so  unaccountably  neglected ;  to  say  no  worse."  This  last  phraseJH 
'*  to  say  no  worse,"  occasions  a  falling  off  at  the  end.     The  pro^^ 
per  disposition  of  such  circumstances  in  a  sentence,  requires  at 
tention,  in  order  to  adjust  them  so  as  shall  consist  equally  with 
the  perspicuity  and  the  strength  of  the  penod. — ^Though  neces- 
sary parts,  they  are,  however,  like  irregular  stones  in  a  building, 
which  try  the  skill  of  an  artist,  where  to  place  them  with    tliifl 
least  offence.     But  it  must  be  rememberod,  that  the  close  is  al<^| 
ways  an  unsuitable  place  for  them     Notwithstanding  what  bat 


Strength.]  PERSPICUITY,  &:a  211 

been  said  against  concluding  a  period  with  an  adverb,  &c.  this 
must  not  be  understood  to  refer  to  such  words,  when  the  stress 
and  significancy  of  the  sentence  rest  chieiiy  upon  them.  In  this 
case  they  are  not  to  be  considered  as  circumstances,  but  as  the 
principal  objects  :  as  in  the  folk)wing  sentence.  "  In  their  pros- 
perity, my  friends  shall  never  hear  of  me,  in  their  adversity,  al- 
ways.*' Here,  "never"  and  ^^ always''^  being  emphatical  words, 
"were  to  be  so  placed  as  to  make  a  strong  impression. 

The  sixth  rule  relating  to  the  strength  of  a  sentence,  is,  that  in 
the  members  of  a  sentence,  where  two  things  are  compared  or  con- 
trasted with  one  another ;  where  either  a  resemblance  or  an  opposi- 
tion is  intended  to  he  expressed  ;  some  resemblance,  in  the  language 
and  construction,  should  be  preserved*  For  when  the  things  them- 
selves correspond  to  each  other,  we  naturally  expect  to  find  a  similar 
correspondence  in  the  words. 

Thus,  when  it  is  said,  "The  wise  man  is  happy  when  he  gains 
his  own  approbation  ;  the  fool,  when  he  recommends  himself  to 
the  applause  of  those  about  him;"  the  opposition  wou'd  have 
been  more  regular,  if  it  had  been  expressed  thus:  **  The  wise 
man  is  happy  when  he  gains  his  own  approbation ;  the  fool, 
when  he  gains  that  of  others." 

"  A  friend  exaggerates  a  man's  virtues  :  an  enemy  inflames  his 
crifnes."  Better  thus :  "  A  friend  exaggerates  a  man's  virtues ; 
an  enemy,  his  crimes." 

The  following  passage  from  Pope's  Preface  to  his  Homer,  fully 
exemplifies  the  rule  just  given  :  **  Homer  was  the  greater  genius  ; 
Virgil,  the  better  artist:  in  the  one  we  most  admire  the  man  ;  in 
the  other  the  work.  Honier  hurries  us  with  a  commanding 
impetuosity  ;  V^.rgil  leads  us  with  an  attractive  majesty.  Homer 
scatters  with  a  generous  profusion  ;  Virgil  bestows  with  a  care- 
ful magnificence.  Homer,  like  the  Nile,  pours  out  his  riches 
with  a  sudden  overflow ;  Virgil,  like  a  river  in  its  banks,  with  a 
constant  stream." — Periods  thus  constructed,  when  introduced 
with  propriety,  and  not  returning  too  often,  have  a  sensible 
beauty.  But  we  must  beware  of  carrying  our  attention  to  this 
beauty  too  far.  It  ought  only  to  be  occasionally  studied,  when 
comparison  or  opposition  of  objects  naturally  leads  to  it.  If 
such  a  construction  as  this  be  aimed  at,  in  all  our  sentences,  it 
leads  to  a  disagreeable  uniformity  ;  produces  a  regularly  return- 
ing clink  in  the  period,  which  tires  the  ear ;  and  plainly  discovers 
affectation. 

The  seventh  rule  for  promoting  the  strength  and  effect  of  sen 
tences,  is,  to  attend  to  the  sound,  the  harmony  and  easy  fiow,  of  the 
words  and  members. 

Sound  is  a  quality  much  inferior  to  sense;  yet  such  as  must 
not  be  disregarded.  For,  as  long  as  sounds  are  the  vehicle  or  con- 
veyance for  our  ideas,  there  will  be  a  very  considerable  connexion 
between  the  idea  which  is  conveyed,  and  the  nat'^re  of  the 
sound  which  conveys  it. — Pleasing  ideas,  and  forcibte  :;easoning, 
can  hardly  be  transmitted  to  the  mind,  by  means  cf  narsh  anc^ 


disagreeable  sounds.     The  mind  revolts  at  such  sounds,  and  th^ J 
impression  of  the  sentiment  must  consequently  be  weakened. 
The  observations  which  we  have  to  make  on  this  subject,  respect 
the  choice  of  words;  their  arrangement;  the  order  and  disposi- 
tion of  the  members  ;  and  the  cadence  or  close  of  sentences. 

AVe  begin  with  the  choice  of  words.  It  is  evident,  tliat  words 
are  most  agreeable  to  the  ear,  when  ihey  are  composed  of  smooth 
and  liquid  sounds,  in  which  there  is  a  proper  intermixture  of 
vowels  and  consonants  ;  without  too  many  harsh  consonants 
rubbing  against  each  other  ;  or  too  many  open  vowels  in  succes- 
sion, to  cause  a  hiatus,  or  disagreeable  aperture  of  the  mouth. 

It  may  always  be  assumed  as  a  principle,  that  whatever  sounda 
are  difficult  in  pronunciation,  are,  in  the  same  proportion,  harsh 
and  painful  to  the  ear.  Vowels  give  softness ;  consonants,  strength 
to  the  sound  of  words.  The  melody  of  language  requires  a  just 
proportion  of  each  ;  and  the  construction  will  be  hurt,  will  be 
rendered  either  grating  or  effeminate,  by  an  excess  of  eiiiier. 
Long  words  are  commonly  more  agreeable  to  the  car  than  mono- 
syllables. They  please  it  by  the  composition  or  succession  of 
sounds  which  they  present  to  it ;  and  accordingly,  the  njost  harmo- 
nious languages  abound  most  in  them.  Among  words  of  any 
length,  those  are  the  most  melodious,  which  do  not  run  wholly 
either  upon  long  or  short  syllables,  but  are  composed  of  an  inter- 
mixture of  them :  such  as  j  repent,  profess,  powerful^  velocitt/,  celerity^ 
independent,  impetuosiiy. 

If  we  would  speak  forcibly  and  effectually,  we  must  avoid  the 
use  of  such  words  as  the  following  ;  1.  Such  as  are  composed  of 
words  already  compounded,  the  several  parts  of  which  are  not 
easily,  and  therefore  not  closely  united  :  as,  *'  Unsuccessful ness, 
wrongheadedness,  tenderheartedness  :"  2.  Such  as  have  the  sylla- 
bles which  immediately  follow  the  accented  syllable,  crowded 
with  consonants  that  do  not  easily  coalesce :  as,  "  Q^uesiionlesSt 
chroniclers,  conventiclers ;"  3.  Such  as  have  too  many  syllables 
following  the  accented  syllable  :  as,  "  Primarily,  ccsorily,  suvi' 
marily,  peremptoriness  :^^  4.  Such  as  have  a  short  or  unaccented 
syllable  repeated,  or  followed  by  another  short  or  unaccented 
syllable  very  much  resembhng:  as,  ''^  Holily,  sillily,  lowlily,  far- 
riery^  A  little  harshness,  by  the  collision  of  consonants,  which 
nevertheless  our  organs  find  no  difficulty  in  articulating,  and 
which  do  not  suggest  to  the  hearer  the  disagreeable  idea  either 
of  precipitation  or  of  stammering,  is  by  no  means  a  sufficient 
reason  for  suppressing  a  useful  term.  The  words  hedg'^d,fedg^d, 
wedg\l,  drudged,  grudged,  adjudged,  which  some  have  thought 
very  offensive,  are  not  exposed  to  the  objeo'  ions  which  lie  against 
the  words  above  mentioned.  We  should  not  do  well  to  introduce 
such  hard  and  strong  sounds  too  frequently ;  but  when  they  are 
used  sparingly  and  properly,  they  have  even  a  good  effect.  They 
contribute  to  that  variety  in  sound  which  is  advantageous  to 
lang^uage. 

The  next  head,  respecting  the  harmony  which  results  from  & 


8TRENGTH.]  PERSPICUITY,  &c.  213 

proper  arrans^ement  of  words,  is  a  point  of  greater  nicety.  For, 
let  the  words  themselves  be  ever  so  ^vell  chosen,  and  well  sound- 
ing, yet,  if  they  be  ill  disposed,  the  melody  of  the  sentence  is 
utterly  lost,  or  greatly  impaired.  That  this  is  the  case,  the  learners 
will  j)erceive  by  the  following  examples.  "Pleasures  simple  and 
moderate  always  are  the  best :"  it  would  be  better  to  say,  *'  Sim- 
ple and  moderate  |)leasures  are  always  the  best."  "  Office  or 
rank  may  be  the  recompense  of  intrigue,  versatility,  or  flattery ;" 
better  thus,  ''  Rank  or  office  may  be  the  recompense  of  flattery, 
versatility,  or  intrigue."  "A  great  recommendation  of  tha 
guidance  offered  by  iiitegrity  to  us,  is,  that  it  is  by  all  men  easily 
nn<lerstood  ;"  better  in  this  form ;  '*  It  is  a  great  recommenda- 
tion of  the  guidance  offered  to  us  by  integrity,  that  it  is  easily  un-* 
derstood  by  all  men."  In  the  following  examples,  the  words  are 
neither  selected  nor  arranged,  so  as  to  produce  the  most  agree- 
able effect.  *'  If  we  make  the  best  of  our  bfe,  it  is  but  as  a  pil- 
grimage, w^ith  dangers  surrounding  it:"  better  thus,  **Ourlife, 
at  the  best,  is  a  ]>ilgrimage,  and  dangers  surround  it."  "  We  see 
that  we  are  encumbered  with  difficulties,  which  we  cannot  pre- 
vent:" better,  "We  perceive  ourselves  involved  in  difncuiries 
that  cannot  be  avoided."  **  It  is  plain  to  any  one  who  views  the 
subject,  even  slightly,  that  there  is  nothing  here  that  is  without 
allay  and  pure :"  improved  by  this  form  ;  "  It  is  evident  to  the 
lightest  inspection,  that  nothing  here  is  unallayed  and  pure." 

We  may  take,  for  an  instance  of  a  sentence  remarkably  harmo 
nious,  the  following  from  Milton's  Treatise  on  Education  :  "  We 
shall  conduct  you  to  a  hill-side,  laborious  indeed,  at  the  first 
ascent ;  but  else  so  smooth,  so  green,  so  full  of  goodly  prospects 
and  melodious  sounds  on  every  side,  that  the  harp  of  Orpheus* 
was  not  more  charming."  Every  thing  in  this  sentence  con- 
spires to  promote  the  harmony.  The  words  are  well  chosen  ; 
full  of  liquids,  find  soft  sounds;  laborious^  smooth,  green,  goodly, 
melodious,  charming;  and  these  words  so  artfully  arranged,  that 
were  we  to  alter  the  situation  of  any  one  of  them,  we  should, 
presently,  be  sensible  of  the  melody's  suffering. 

To  promote  this  harmonious  arrangement  of  words,  the  fol- 
lowing general  directions  will  be  found  of  some  use.  1st,  W^hen 
the  preceding  word  ends  with  a  vowel,  let  the  subsecjuent  one 
begin  with  a  consonant;  and  vice  versa.  A  true  friend,  a  cruel 
€ncmy,  are  smoother  and  easier  to  the  voice,  than  a  true  union,  a 
cruel  destroyer.  13ut  when  it  is  more  perspicuous  or  convenient, 
for  vowels  or  consonants  to  end  one  word  and  begin  the  next, 
it  is  proper  that  the  vowels  be  a  long  and  short  one  ;  and  that 
the  consonants  be  either  a  liquid  and  a  mute,  or  liquids  of  dif- 
ferent sorts:  thus,  a  lovely  offspring ;  a  purer  design  ;  a  calm  re- 
treat ;  are  more  fluent  than,  a  happy  union,  a  brief  petition,  a  cheap 
triumph,  a  putrid  distemper,  a  calm  matron,  a  clean  nurse.  From 
these  examples,  the  student  will  perceive  the  importance  of  accu 
rately  understanding  the  nature  of  vowels  and  consonants,  liquids 
and  mutes;   with  the  connexion   and  influence  which  subsist 


214  APPENDIX.  [STR2W0'  H 

amongst  them.  2cl,  In  general,  a  considerable  n'lmber  of  long 
or  short  words  near  one  another  should  be  avoided.  "  Disap- 
pointment in  our  expectations  is  wretchedness  :"  better  thus  ; 
*'  Disappointed  hope  is  misery."  '*  No  course  of  joy  can  please 
US  long  :"  better,  '*  No  course  of  enjoyment  can  delight  us  long." 
A  succession  of  words  having  the  same  quantity  in  the  accented 
syllables,  whether  it  be  long  or  short,  should  also  be  avoided, 
**  James  was  needy,  feeble,  and  fearful :"  improved  thus,  "  James 
was  timid,  feeble,  and  destitute."  "  They  could  not  be  happy  ; 
for  he  was  silly,  pettish,  and  sullen  :"  better  thus  ;  *'  They  could 
not  be  happy  ;  for  he  was  simple,  peevish,  and  gloomy."  3d, 
Words  which  begin  alike,  or  end  alike,  must  not  come  together; 
and  the  last  syllable  of  the  preceding  word,  should  not  be  the 
same  as  the  first  syllable  of  the  subsequent  one.  It  is  not  s«> 
pleasing  and  harmonious  to  say,  "  This  is  a  convenient  contri- 
vance ;"  '*  He  is  an  indulgent  parent ;"  *'  She  behaves  with  uni- 
form formality  ;"  as,  *'  This  is  a  useful  contrivance ;"  "  He  is  a 
kind  parent ;"  *'  She  behaves  with  unvaried  formality." 

We  proceed  to  consider  the  members  of  a  sentence,  with  re- 
gard to  harmuny  They  should  not  be  too  long,  nor  dispropor- 
tionate to  each  other.  When  they  have  a  regular  and  piopor- 
tional  division,  they  are  much  easier  to  the  voice,  are  more  clear- 
ly understood,  and  better  remembered,  than  when  this  rule  is 
not  attended  to:  for  whatever  tires  the  voice,  and  offends  the 
ear,  is  apt  to  mar  the  strength  of  the  expression,  and  to  degrade 
the  sense  of  the  author.  And  this  is  a  sufficient  ground  for 
paying  attention  to  the  order  and  proportion  of  sentences,  and 
the  different  parts  of  which  they  consist.  Th.e  following  passage 
exhibits  sentences  in  which  the  different  members  are  proportion 
ally  arranged. 

Temple,  speaking  sarcastically  of  man,  says  ;  "  But  bis  pride 
IS  greater  than  his' ignorance,  and  what  he  wants  in  knowledge 
he  supplies  by  sufficiency.  When  he  has  looked  about  him  as 
far  as  he  can,  he  concludes  there  is  no  more  to  be  seen;  when 
he  is  at  the  end  of  his  line,  he  is  at  the  bottom  of  the  ocean  ; 
when  he  has  shot  his  best,  he  is  sure  none  ever  did,  or  ever  can, 
shoot  better,  or  beyond  it.  His  own  reason  he  holds  to  be  the 
certain  measure  of  truth  ;  and  his  own  knowledge,  of  what  is 
possible  in  nature."  Here  every  thing  is  at  once  easy  to  the 
breath,  grateful  to  the  ear,  and  intelligible  to  the  understanding. 
See  another  example  of  tne  same  kind,  in  th»  I7th  and  J8ih 
verses  of  the  3d  chapter  of  the  pro])het  Habakkuk.  We  may 
remark  here,  that  our  present  version  of  the  Holy  Scriptures, 
especially  of  the  Psalms,  abounds  with  instances  of  an  harmoni- 
ous arrangement  of  the  words  and  members  of  sentences. 

Tn  the  following  quotation  from  Tillotson,  we  shall  become 
sensible  of  an  effect  very  -different  from  that  of  the  preceding 
sentences.  *'  This  discourse,  concerning  the  easiness  of  the  Di- 
vine commands,  does  all  along  suppose  and  a-^.knowledge  thd 
difficulties  of  the  first  entrance  upon  a  rciigiou^  course ;  exrtspi 


PiauAKs.J  PERSPICUirY,&c  215 

only  in  those  persons  who  have  had  the  happiness  to  be  trained 
up  to  religion,  by  the  easy  and  insensible  degrees  of  a  pious  and 
virtuous  education,"  Here  there  is  some  degree  of  harshness 
and  unpleasantness,  owing  principally  to  this,  that  there  is  pro- 
perly no  uiore  than  one  pause  or  rest  in  the  sentence,  falling  be- 
twixt the  two  nieuibers  into  which  it  is  divided :  each  of  which 
is  so  long  as  to  occasion  a  considerable  stretch  of  the  breath  in 
pronouncing  it. 

With  respect  to  tlie  cadence  or  close  of  a  sentence,  care  should 
be  taken,  that  it  be  not  abrupt,  or  unpleasant.  The  following 
instances  may  be  sufficient  to  show  the  propriety  of  some  atten 
rjon  to  this  part  of  the  rule.  "  Virtue,  dihgence,  and  industry, 
joined  with  good  temper  and  prudence,  are  prosperous  in  gene- 
ral." It  would  be  better  thus  i  "Virtue,  diligence,  and  industry, 
joined  witli  good  temper  and  prudence,  liave  ever  been  found 
the  surest  road  to  prosi)erity."  An  author  speaking  of  the  Trinity, 
•expresses  liimseif  thus:  "It  is  a  mystery  which  we  firmly  be- 
lieve the  irutli  of,  and  humbly  adore  the  depth  of."  How  much 
better  would  it  have  been  with  this  transposition  :  "  It  is  a  mys- 
'ery,  the  truth  of  which  we  firmly  believe,  and  the  depth  of  which 
we  humbly  adore." 

In  order  to  give  a  sentence  this  proper  close,  the  longest  inei— 
6er  of  it,  and  the  fullest  words,  should  be  reserved  to  the  con- 
clusion. But  in  the  distribution  of  the  members,  and  in  the  ca- 
dence of  the  j)eriod,  as  well  as  in  the  sentences  themselves,  vari- 
ety must  be  observed  ;  for  the  mind  soon  tires  with  a  frequent 
repetition  of  the  same  tone. 

Though  attention  to  the  words  and  members,  and  the  close 
of  sentences,  must  not  be  neglected,  yet  it  must  also  be  kept 
within  proper  bounds.  Sense  has  its  own  harmony  ;  and  in  no 
instance  should  perspicuity,  precision,  or  strength  of  sentiment, 
be  sacrificed  to  sound.  All  unmeaning  words,  introduced  mere- 
ly to  round  the  period,  or  fill  up  the  melody,  are  great  blemishes 
in  writing.  They  are  childish  and  trivial  ornaments,  by  which  a 
sentence  always  loses  more  in  point  of  weight,  than  it  can  gain 
l)y  such  additions  to  its  sound.  See  tht  Octavo  Grammar^  on  this 
chapter. 

See  also  the  appendix  to  the  Exercises. 

CHAPTER  IV,     Of  Figures  of  Speech. 

The  fourth  requisite  of  a  perfect  sentence,  is  a  judicious  use 
of  the  Figures  of  Speech, 

As  figurative  language  is  to  be  met  with  in  almost  every  sen- 
tence ;  and,  when  properly  employed,  confers  beauty  and  strength 
on  composition  ;  some  knowledge  of  it  appears  to  be  indispen 
sable  to  the  scholars,  who  are  learning  to  form  their  sentences 
with  perspicuity,  accuracy,  and  force.  We  shall,  therefore,  enu- 
merate the  principal  figures,  and  give  them  some  explanation. 

In  general,  P^gures  of  Speech  imply  some  departure  from 
Bimplicity  of  expression ;  the  ido*  which  we  mean  to  convey  ia 


216  APPENDIX.  [Figure*. 

expressed  in  a  particular  manner,  and  with  some  circumstance 
added,  which  is  designed  to  render  the  impression  more  strong 
and  vivid.  When  I  say,  for  instance,  ''That  a  good  man  enjoys 
comfort  in  the  midst  of  adversity  ;"  I  just  express  my  thoughts 
in  the  simplest  manner  possible  :  but  when  I  say,  "  To  the  upright 
there  ariseth  light  in  darkness  ;"  the  same  sentiment  is  expressed 
in  a  figurative  style  ;  a  new  circumstance  is  introduced  ;  "  light,*' 
is  put  in  the  place  of '-comfort,"  and  "darkness"  is  used  to  suggest 
the  idea  of  adversity.  In  the  same  manner,  to  say,  "It  is  im- 
possible, by  any  search  we  can  make,  to  explore  the  Divine  Na- 
ture fully,"  is  to  make  a  simple  proposition  :  but  when  we  say, 
"  Canst  thou,  by  searching,  find  out  the  Lord  ?  Canst  thou  find 
out  the  Almighty  to  perfection  ?  It  is  high  as  heaven,  what  canst 
thou  do  ?  deeper  than  hel),  what  canst  thou  know  ?"  this  intro- 
duces a  figure  into  style ;  the  proposition  being  not  only  expressed, 
but  with  it  admiration  and  astonishment. 

But,  though  figures  imply  a  deviation  from  what  maybe  reck 
oned  the  most  simple  form  of  speech,  we  are  not  thence  to  con- 
clude, that  they  imply  any  thing  uncommon,  or  unnatural.  On 
many  occasions,  they  are  both  the  most  natural,  and  the  most 
common  method  of  uttering  our  sentiments.  It  would  be  very 
difficult  to  compose  any  discoiu'se  without  using  them  often  : 
nav,  there  are  few  sentences  of  considerable  length,  in  which 
tliere  does  not  occur  some  expression  that  may  be  termed  a 
figure.  This  being  the  case,  we  may  see  the  necessity  of  somo 
attention,  in  order  to  understand  their  nature  and  use. 

At  the  first  rise  of  language,  men  would  begin  with  giving 
names  to  the  diflTerent  objects  which  they  discerned,  or  thought 
of.  The  stock  of  words  would,  then,  be  very  small.  As  men's 
ideas  multiplied,  and  their  acquaintance  with  objects  increased, 
their  store  of  names  and  words  would  also  increase.  But  to  the 
vast  variety  of  objects  and  ideas,  no  language  is  adequate.  No 
language  is  so  copious,  as  to  have  a  separate  word  for  every 
separate  idea.  Men  naturally  sought  to  abridge  this  labour  of 
multiplying  words  without  end  ;  and,  in  order  to  lay  less  burden 
on  their  memories,  made  one  word,  which  they  had  already 
appropriated  to  a  certain  idea  or  object,  stand  also  for  some  other 
*dea  or  object,  between  which  and  the  primary  one,  they  found, 
or  fancied,  some  relation.  The  names  of  sensible  objects,  were 
he  words  most  early  introduced  ;  and  were,  by  degrees,  ex- 
ended  to  those  mental  objects,  of  which  men  had  more  obscure 
conceptions,  and  to  which  they  found  it  more  difficult  to  assign 
distinct  names.  They  borrowed,  therefore,  the  name  of  some 
sensible  idea,  where  their  imagination  found  some  affinity.  Thus, 
we  speak  of  a /7ierci?ig- judgment,  and  a  dear  head  ;  SiSofl  or  a  hard 
heart ;  a  rovgh  or  a  smooth  behaviour.  We  say,  inflamed  by  anger, 
warmed  by  love,  swelled  with  pride,  melted  into  grief;  and  these  are 
almost  the  only  significant  words  whicli  we  have  for  such  ideas. 

The  principal  advantages  of  figures  of  speech,  are  the  twofol 
lowing". 


I 


Fi(7tJRER.l  PERSPICUITY,  &c.  217 

Firsts  They  enrich  language,  and  render  it  more  copk  us.  By 
their  means,  words  and  phrases  are  multiplied,  for  expressing 
all  sorts  of  ideas  ;  for  describing  even  the  minutest  differences 
the  nicest  shades  and  colours  of  thought;  which  no  language 
could  possibly  do  by  proper  words  alone,  without  assistance  from 
Tropes. 

Secondlyj  They  frequently  give  us  a  much  clearer  and  more 
sinking  view  of  the  principal  object,  than  we  could  have,  if  it 
were  expressed  in  simple  terms,  and  divested  of  its  accessory 
idea.  By  a  well  chosen  figure,  even  conviction  is  assisted,  and 
the  impression  of  a  truth  upon  the  mind,  made  more  lively  and 
forcible  than  it  would  otherwise  be.  We  perceive  this  in  the 
following  illustration  of  Young:  *'  When  we  dip  too  deep  in  plea- 
sure, we  always  stir  a  sediment  that  renders  it  impure  and  nox- 
ious:" and  in  this  instance  :  "  A  heart  boiling  with  violent  pas- 
sions, will  always  send  up  infatuating  fumes  to  the  head."  An 
Image  that  presents  so  much  congruity  between  a  moral  and  a 
sensible  idea,  serves,  like  an  argument  from  analogy,  to  enforce 
what  the  author  asserts,  and  to  induce  belief. 

Having  considered  the  general  nature  of  figures,  we  proceed 
next  to  particularize  such  of  them  as  are  of  the  most  importance; 
viz.  Metaphor,  Allegory,  Comparison,  Metonymy,  Synecdoche, 
Personification,  Apostrophe,  Antithesis,  Interrogation,  Excla- 
mation, Amplification  or  Climax,  &c. 

A  Metaphor  is  a  figure  founded  entirely  on  the  resemblance 
which  one  object  bears  to  another.  Hence,  it  is  much  allied  to 
simile  or  comparison,  and  is  indeed  no  other  than  a  comparison, 
expressed  in  an  abridged  form.  When  I  say  of  some  great 
minister,  '*that  he  upholds  the  state,  like  a  pillar  which  supports 
the  weight  of  a  whole  edifice,"  I  fairly  make  a  comparison :  but 
when  I  say  of  such  a  minister,  *'That  he  is  the  pillar  of  the  state," 
it  now  becomes  a  metaphor.  In  the  latter  case,  the  comparison 
between  the  minister  and  a  pillar  is  made  in  the  mind;  but  it  is 
expressed  without  any  of  the  words  that  denote  comparison. 

The  following,  are  examples  of  metaphor  taken  from  Scripture : 
"  I  will  be  unto  her  a  wall  of  fire  round  about,  and  will  be  the 
glory  in  the  midst  of  her."  *'  Thou  art  my  rock  and  my  for- 
tress."    ''^  Thy  word  is  a  lamp  to  my  feet,  and  a  light  to  my  path."^ 

Rules  to  be  observed  in  the  use  of  metaphors. 

1  Metaphors,  as  well  as  other  figures,  should,  on  no  occasion,  h& 
stuck  on  profusely ;  and  should  always  he  such  as  accord  with  the 
strain  of  our  sentiment.  The  latter  part  of  the  following  passage, 
from  a  late  historian,  is,  in  this  respect,  very  exceptionable.  He 
is  givmg  an  account  of  the  famous  act  of  parliament  agafnst  ir- 
regular marriages  in  England.  ^'The  bill,"  says  he,  "under- 
went a  great  number  of  alterations  and  amendments,  which 
were  not  effected  without  violent  contest.  At  length,  however, 
U  was  floated  through  both  houses  on  the  tide  of  a  great  majori- 
ty, and  steered  into  the  safe  harbour  of  royal  approbation." 
t   2  Core  should  be  taken  that  the  resemblunce,  which  is  Ih^  foun- 

T 


218  APPENDIX.  [FiGUREa 

dation  of  the  metaphor,  he  clear  and  perspicuous,  not  farfetched,  nmB^ 
difficult  to  discover.     The  transgression  of  this  rule  makes  wh^" 
are  called  harsh  or  forced  metaphors;  which  are  displeasing^ 
because  they  puzzJe  the  reader,  and  instead  of  illustrating  the 
thought,  render  it  perplexed  and  intricate. 

3  In  the  third  place,  we  should  be  careful,  in  the  conduct  of 
metaphors,  never  to  jumble  metaphorical  and  plain  language  iog€ 
iher      An  author,  addressing  himself  to  the  king,  says  : 

To  thee  the  world  its  present  homage  pays  ; 

The  harvest  early,  but  matu  re  the  praise. 
It  is  plain,  that,  had  not  the  rhyme  misled  him  to  the  choice  of 
an  improper  phrase,  he  would  have  said, 

The  harvest  early,  but  mature  the  crop ; 
and  so  would  have  continued  the  .figure  which  he  had  begun. 
Whereas,  by  dropping  it  unfinished,  and  by  employing  the  lite 
ral  word  **  praise,"  when  we  were  expecting  something  that  re 
lated  to  the  harvest,  the  figure  is  broken,  and  the  two  members 
of  the  sentence  have  no  suitable  correspondence  to  each  other. 

4  We  should  avoid  making  two  inconsistent  metaphors  meet 
oil  one  object.  This  is  what  is  called  mixed  metaphor,  and  is  in- 
deed one  of  the  greatest  misapplications  of  this  figure.  One  may 
be  **  sheltered  under  the  patronage  of  a  great  man  :"  but  it  would 
be  wrong  to  say,  ^'sheltered  under  the  mask  of  dissimulation;'* 
as  a  mask  conceals,  but  does  not  shelter.  Addison  in  bis  letter 
from  Italy,  says : 

I  bridle  in  my  struggling  muse  with  pain, 
That  longs  to  launch  into  a  bolder  strain. 
The  muse,  figured  as  a  horse,  may  be  bridled  ;  but  when  we 
speak  of  launching,  we  make  it  a  ship  ;  and  by  no  force  of  ima- 
gination, can  it  be  supposed  both  a  horse  and  a  ship  at  one  mo- 
ment ;  bridled,  to  hinder  it  from  launchhig. 

The  same  author, elsewhere,  says,  *'  There  is  not  a  single  view 
of  human  nature,  which  is  not  sufficient  to  extinguish  the  seeds 
of  pride.'*  Observe  the  incoherence  of  the  things  here  joined 
together  ;  making  a  view  extinguish,  and  extinguish  seeds. 

As  metaphors  ought  never  to  be  mixed,  so  they  should  not  be 
crowded  together  on  the  same  object ;  for  the  mind  has  difliiculty 
in  passing  readily  through  many  diflferent  views  of  the  same  ob- 
ject, presented  in  quick  succession. 

The  last  rule  concerning  metaphors,  is,  that  they  he  not  too  far 
pursued.  If  the  resemblance,  on  which  the  figure  is  founded,  be 
Jong  dwelt  upon,  and  carried  into  all  its  minute  circumstances, 
we  tire  the  reader,  who  soon  grows  weary  of  this  stretch  of  fancy ; 
sj,nd  we  render  our  discourse  obscure.  This  is  called  straining  a 
metaphor.  Authors  of  a  lively  and  strong  imagination  are  apt  to 
run  into  this  exuberance  of  metaphor.  When  they  hit  upon  a 
figure  that  pleases  them,  they  are  loth  to  part  with  it,  and  fre- 
quently continue  it  so  long,  as  to  become  tedious  and  intricate. 
We  luay  observe,  for  instance,  how  the  following  metaphor  is 
spun  out. 


PffiUREs.]  PERSPICUITY,  &c.  219 

Thy  tliouglits  are  vagabonds;  all  outward  bound, 

'Midst  sands,  and  rocks,  and  storms,  to  cruise  for  pleasure ; 

If  gaia'd,  dear  bought ;  and  better  miss'd  than  gainM. 

Fancy  and  sense,  from  an  infected  shore, 

Thy  cargo  bring  ;  and  pestilence  the  prize : 

Then  such  a  thirst,  insatiable  thirst, 

B}^  fond  indulgence  b.it  infiam'd  the  more; 

Fancy  still  cruises,  when  poor  sense  is  tired. 
An  Allegory  may  be  regarded  as  a  metaphor  continued :  since 
it  is  the  representation  of  some  one  thing  by  another  that  re- 
sembles it,  and  which  is  made  to  stand  for  it.  We  may  take 
from  the  Scriptures  a  very  fine  example  of  an  allegory,  in  the 
80th  Psalm  ;  where  the  people  of  Israel  are  represented  under  the 
image  of  a  vine  :  and  the  figure  is  carried  throughout  with  great 
exactness  and  beauty.  "  Thou  hast  brought  a  vine  out  of  Egypt : 
thou  hast  cast  out  the  heathen  and  planted  it.  Thoupreparedst 
room  before  it ;  and  didst  cause  it  to  take  deep  root,  and  it  filled 
the  land.  The  hills  were  covered  with  the  shadow  of  it :  and  the 
boughs  tiiereof  were  like  the  goodly  cedars.  She  sent  out  her 
boughs  into  the  sea,  and  her  branches  into  the  river.  Why  hast 
thou  broken  down  hei  hedges,  so  that  all  they  which  pass  by  the 
way  do  pluck  her.^  The  boar  out  of  the  wood  doth  waste  it,  and 
the  wild  beast  of  the  field  doth  devour  it.  Return,  we  beseech 
thee,  O  God  of  Hosts,  look  down  from  heaven,  and  behold,  and 
visit  this  vine  !"     See  also  Ezekiel,  xvii.  J22 — ^24. 

The  first  and  principal  requisite  in  the  conduct  of  an  allegory 
\s,ihat  the  figurative  and  the  literal  meaning  he  not  mixed  inconsist' 
ently  together.  Indeed,  all  the  rules  that  were  given  for  meta- 
phors, may  also  be  applied  to  allegories,  on  account  of  the  affinity 
they  bear  to  each  other.  The  only  material  diflference  betweei 
them,  besides  the  one  being  short  and  the  other  being  prolonged, 
IS,  that  a  metaphor  always  explains  itself  by  the  words  that 
are  connected  with  it  in  their  proper  and  natural  meaning :  as, 
when  I  say, "  Achilles  was  a  lion  ;"  "  An  able  minister  is  the  pil* 
lar  of  the  state ;"  the  *'  lion"  and  the  **  pillar"  are  sufiiciently 
interpreted  by  the  mention  of  **  Achilles"  and  the  "  minister," 
which  I  join  to  them  ;  but  an  allegory  is,  or  may  be,  allowed  to 
stand  less  connected  with  the  literal  meaning,  the  interpreta- 
tion not  being  so  directly  pointed  out,  but  left  to  our  own  re- 
flection. 

Allegory  was  a  favourite  method  of  delivering  instruction  in 
ancient  times ;  for  what  we  call  fables  or  parables,  are  no  other 
than  allegories.  By  words  and  actions  attributed  to  beasts  or 
inanimate  objects,  the  dispositions  of  men  were  figured ;  and 
what  we  call  the  moral,  is  the  unfigured  sense  or  meaning  of  the 
allegory. 

A  Comparison  or  simile,  is,  when  the  resemblance  between  two 
objects  is  expressed  in  form,  and  generally  pursued  more  fully 
than  the  nature  of  a  metaphor  admits  :  as  when  it  is  said,  *'The 
actions  of  princes  are  like  those  great  rivers,  the  course  of  which 


220  APPENDIX.  [FiGURiest 

every  one  beholds,  but  their  springs  have  been  seen  by  few.** 
"As  the  mountahis  are  round  about  Jerusalem,  so  the  Lord  is 
round  about  his  people/'  *'  Behold,  how^  good  and  how  pleasant 
it  is  for  brethren  to  dwell  together  in  unity!  It  is  like  the  pre- 
cious ointment,  &c.  and  as  the  dew  that  descended  upon  the 
mountains  of  Zion."  ' 

The  advantage  of  this  figure  arisen  from  the  illustration  which 
the  simile  employed  gives  to  the  principal  object ;  from  the 
clearer  view  which  it  presents  ;  or  the  mo.  e  strong  impression 
which  it  stamps  upon  the  mind.  Observe  ihe  cfiect  of  it  in  the 
following  instance.  The  autlior  is  ex})laiiiing  the  distinction 
between  the  powers  of  sense  and  imagination  in  the  human 
mind.  **  As  wax,"  says  he,  "  would  not  be  adequate  to  the  pur- 
pose of  signature,  if  it  had  not  the  power  to  retain  as  well  as  to 
receive  the  impression,  the  same  holds  of  the  soul  with  respect 
to  sense  and  imagination.  Sense  is  its  receptive  power  ;  imagi- 
nation, its  retentive.  Had  it  sense  without  imagination,  it  would 
not  be  as  wax,  but  as  water,  where,  though  all  impressions  are 
instantly  made,  yet  as  soon  as  they  are  made,  they  are  instantly 
lost." 

In  comparisons  of  this  nature,  the  understanding  is  concerned 
much  more  than  the  fancy :  and  therefore  the  rules  to  be  observed, 
with  respect  to  them,  are,  that  they  be  clear,  and  that  they  be 
useful ;  that  they  tend  to'render  our  conception  of  the  principal 
object  more  distinct ;  and  that  they  do  not  lead  our  view  aside, 
and  bewilder  it  with  any  false  light.  We  should  always  remem-; 
ber  that  similes  are  not  arguments.  However  apt  they  may  be, 
they  do  no  more  than  explain  the  writer's  sentiments,  they  do  nolj 
prove  them  to  be  founded  on  truth. 

Comparisons  ought  not  to  be  founded  on  likenesses'which  are 
too  faint  and  remote.  For  these,  in  place  of  assisting,  strain  thof; 
mind  to  comprehend  them,  and  throw  no  light  upon  the  subject^i 
It  is  also  to  be  observed,  that  a  comparison  which,  in  the  prinr 
cipal  circumstances,  carries  a  sufficiently  near  resemblance,  may 
become  unnatural  and  obscure,  if  pushed  too  far.  Nothing  is 
more  opposite  to  the  design  of  this  figure,  than  to  hunt  after  a 
great  number  of  coincidences  in  minute  points,  merely  to  show 
how  far  the  writer's  ingenuity  can  stretch  the  resemblance. 

A  Miionymy  is  founded  on  the  several  relations,  of  cause  antj, 
effect,  container  and  contained,  sign  and  thing  signified.  When, 
we  say  ;  "  They  read  Milton,"  the  cause  is  put  instead  of  the^ 
effect ;  meaning  *'  Milton's  works."  On  the  other  hand,  when, 
it  is  said,  *'  Gray  hairs  should  be  respected,"  we  put  the  effect^ 
for  the  cause,  meaning  by  '*  gray  hairs,"  old  age,  *'  The  kettle; 
boils,"  is  a  phrase  where  the  name  of  the  container  is  substituted 
for  that  of  the  thing  contained.  **  To  assume  the  sceptre,"  is  a^ 
common  expression  for  entering  on  royal  authority  ;  the  sig^ 
being  put  for  the  thing  signified. 

When  the  whole  is  put  for  a  part,  or  a  part  for  the  whole  ;  a 
genus  for  a  species,  or  a  species  for  a  genus  ;  in  general^  wh«]^i 


FiouREs.]  PERSPICUITY,  &c.  221 

any  thing  less,  or  any  thing  more,  is  put  for  the  precise  object 
meant ;  the  figure  is  then  called  a  Synecdoche  or  Comprehension 
It  is  very  common,  for  Instance,  to  describe  a  whole  object  by 
Bome  remarkable  part  of  it :  as  when  we  say,  "  A  fleet  of  twenty 
saiW^  in  the  place  of*'  ships  ;'"  when  we  use  the  *'/iea(/"  for  the 
^^person,^^  the  "  tvaves^^  for  the  *'  5€a."  In  like  manner,  an  attri 
hitte  may  be  put  for  a  subject :  as,  **  Youth"  for  the  "  young,"  the- 
"  deep,"  for  the  "  sea;"  and  sometimes  a  subject  for  its  attribute. 
Personification  ov  .Prosopopoeia,  is  that  figure  by  which  we 
attribute  life  and  action  to  inanimate  objects.  The  use  of  this 
figure  is  very  natural  and  extensive  :  there  is  a  wonderful  prone- 
ness  iu  human  nature,  under  emotion,  to  animate  all  objects. 
When  we  say,  "  the  ground  thirsts  for  rain,"  or,  '*  the  earth 
smiles  with  plenty;"  when  we  speak  of  **  ambition's  being  rest- 
less,^^  or,  "a  disease's  being  (£ecei(/MZ ;"  such  expressions  shovir  . 
the  facility  with  which  tho  mind  can  accommodate  the  proper- 
ties of  living  creatures  to  things  that  are  inanimate,  or  to  abstract 
conceptions  of  its  own  forming.  The  following  are  striking  ex- 
amples from  the  Scriptures  :  '*  When  Israel  went  out  of  Egypt, 
the  house  of  Judah  from  a  people  of  strange  language  ;  the  sea 
saw  it,  and  fled:  Jordan  was  driven  back!  The  mountains  skipped 
like  rams,  and  the  little  hills  like  lambs.  What  ailed  thee,  O  thou 
sea!  that  thou  fleddest?  Thou  Jordan,  that  thou  wast  driven 
back?  Ye  mountains,  that  ye  skipped  like  rams;  and  ye  little 
hills,  like  lambs  ?  Tremble,  thou  earth,  at  the  presence  of  the 
Lord,  at  the  presence  of  the  God  of  Jacob." 

"  The  wilderness  and  the  sohtary  place  shall  be  glad  for  them 
and  the  desert  shall  rejoice  and  blossom  as  the  rose." 

Milton  thus  describes  the  immediate  eflfects  of  eating  the  for- 
bidden fruit.     Terror  produces  the  figure. 

Earth  trembled  from  her  entrails,  as  again 
In  pangs,  and  nature  gave  a  second  groan ; 
Sky  low'rM,  and,  mutt'ring  thunder,  some  sad  drops 
Wept,  at  completing  of  the  mortal  sin. 
The  impatience  of  Adam  to  know  his  origin,  is  supposed  to 
prompt  the  personification  of  all  the  objects  he  beheld,  in  order 
to  procure  information. 

Thou  sun,  said  I,  fair  light ! 
And  thou  enlightened  earth,  so  fresh  and  gay  I 
Ye  hills  and  dales,  ye  rivers,  woods,  and  plains, 
And  ye  that  live  and  move,  fair  creatures,  tell. 
Tell,  if  you  saw,  how  came  I  thus,  how  here  ? 
We  shall  give  a  remarkably  fine  example  of  this  figure,  from 
bishop  Sherlock.     He  has  beautifully  personified  Natural  lleH- 
gion:  and  we  may  perceive,  in  the  })erson2fication,  the  spirit  and 
grace  which  the  figure,  when  well  conducted,  bestows  on  dis- 
course.    The  author  is  comparing  together  our  Saviour  and 
Mahomet.  **  Go  (says  he)  to  your  Natural  Religion :  lay  before  her 
Mahomet,  and  his  disciples,  arrayed  in  armour  and  blood,  riding 
in  triumph  over  the  spoils  of  thousands  who  fell  by  his  victorious 

T  2 


^^  APPENDIX.  [Piouftcto 

gwol-d.  Show  her  the  cities  which  he  set  in  flames,  the  coun- 
tries which  he  ravaged  and  destroyed,  and  the  miserable  distress 
of  all  the  inhabitants  of  the  earth.  When  she  has  viewed  him  in 
this  scene,  carry  her  into  his  retirement ;  show  her  the  Prophet's 
chamber  ;  his  concubines  and  his  wives ;  and  let  her  hear  him 
alledge  revelation,  and  a  Divine  command,  to  justify  hia  adultery 
and  lust." 

"  When  she  is  tired  with  this  prospect,  then  show  her  the 
blessed  Jesus,  humble  and  meek,  doing  good  to  all  the  sons  of 
men.  Let  her  see  him  in  his  most  retired  privacies;  let  her 
follow  him  to  the  mount,  and  hear  his  devotions  and  supplica- 
tions to  God.  Carry  her  to  his  table,  to  view  his  poor  fare  ;  and 
hear  his  heavenly  discourse.  Let  her  attendhim  to  the  tribunal, 
and  consider  the  patience  with  which  he  endured  the  scofFs  and 
reproaches  of  his  enemies.  Lead  her  to  his  cross  ;  let  her  view 
him  in  the  agony  of  death,  and  hear  his  last  prayer  for  his  perse* 
cutors  ;  *  Father,  forgive  them,  for  they  know  not  what  they  do. 
— When  Natural  Religion  has  thus  viewed  both,  ask  her,  wliich 
is  the  Prophet  of  God  ? — But  her  answer  we  have  already  had, 
when  she  saw  part  of  this  scene,  through  the  eyes  of  the  Centu- 
rion, who  attended  at  the  cross.  By  him  she  spoke,  and  said, 
'  Truly  this  man  was  the  Son  of  God.' "  This  is  more  than  elegant : 
it  is  truly  sublime.  The  whole  passage  is  animated  ;  and  the 
Figure  rises  at  the  conclusion,  when  Natural  Religion,  who,  be- 
fore, was  only  a  spectator,  is  introduced  as  speaking  by  the 
Centurion's  voice. 

This  figure  of  speech  is  sometimes  very  improperly  and  ex- 
travagantly applied.  A  capital  error  in  personifying-  objects,  is, 
to  deck  them  with  fantastic  and  trifling  circumstances.  A  prac- 
tice of  this  sort  dissolves  the  potent  charm,  which  enchants  and 
deceives  the  reader ;  and  either  leaves  him  dissatisfied,  or  ex- 
cites, perhaps,  his  risibility. 

Another  error,  frequent  in  descriptive  personifications,  con- 
sists in  introducing  them,  when  the  subject  of  discussion  is  des- 
titute of  dignity,  and  the  reader  is  not  prepared  to  relish  them. 
One  can  scarcely  peruse,  with  composure,  the  following  use  o/ 
this  figure.  It  is  the  language  of  our  elegant  poet  Thomson, 
who  thus  personifies  and  connects  the  bodily  appetites,  and  thoit, 
gratifications. 

Then  sated  Hunger  bids  his  brother  Thirst 

Produce  the  mighty  bowl: 

Nor  wanting  is  the  brown  October,  drawn 

Mature  and  perfect,  from  his  dark  retreat 

Of  thirty  years  :  and  now  his  honest  front 

Flames  in  the  light  refulgent. 
It  is  to  be  remarked,  concerning  this  figure,  and  short  metm 
phors  and  simihes,  which  also  have  been  allowed  to  be  the  pro 
per  language  of  high  passion,  that  they  are  the  proper  expression 
of  it,  only  on  those  occasions  when  it  is  so  far  moderated  as  to 
«id?»n  q£  words*    The  first  arid  hi^htJst  transports  seem  to  ovf  r- 


omson. 
id  thoit_, 

4 


FiGORtsO  PERSPICUITY,  &c.  25J3 

wlielin  the  mind,  and  are  denoted  by  silence  or  groans :  next 
succeeds  the  violent  and  passionate  language,  of  which  these 
figures  constitute  a  great  part.  Such  agitation,  however,  can- 
not long  continue  ;  the  passions  having  spent  their  force,  the 
mind  soon  subsides  into  that  exhausted  and  dispirited  state,  in 
which  all  figures  are  improper. 

Apostropht  is  a  turning  oftYrom  the  regular  course  of  the  sub- 
ject, to  address  some  person  or  thing  ;  as,  **  Death  is  swallowed 
up  in  victory.  O  death  !  where  is  thy  sting  ?  O  grave  !  where 
is  thy  victory  ?" 

The  following  is  an  instance  of  personification  and  apostrophe 
united:  "O  thou  sword  of  the  Lord  I  how  long  will  it  be  eVe 
thou  be  quiet  ?  put  thyself  up  into  thy  scabbard,  rest  and  be  still ! 
How  can  il  be  quiet,  seeing  the  Lord  hath  given  it  a  charge 
against  Askelon,  and  against  the  ^ea-shore?  there  hath  he  ap- 
pointed it."  See  also  an  extraordinary  example  of  these  figures, 
in  the  14th  chapter  of  Isaiah,  from  the  4th  to  the  19th  verse, 
where  the  prophet  describes  the  fall  of  the  Assyrian  empire. 

A  principal  error,  in  the  use  of  the  Apostrophe,  is,  to  deck  the 
object  addressed  with  affected  ornaments ;  by  which  authors 
rehnquish  the  expression  of  passion,  and  substitute  for  it  the 
language  of  fancy. 

Another  frequent  error  is,  to  extend  this  figure  to  too  great 
length.  The  language  of  violent  passion  is  always  concise,  and 
often  abrupt.  It  passes  suddenly  from  one  object  to  another. 
It  often  glances  at  a  thought,  starts  from  it,  and  leaves  It  unfinish- 
ed. The  succession  of  ideas  is  irregular,  and  connected  by  dis- 
tant and  uncommon  relations.  On  all  these  accounts,  nothing  is 
more  unnatural  than  long  speeches,  uttered  by  persons  under  the 
influence  of  strong  passions.  Yet  this  error  occurs  in  several 
poets  of  distinguished  reputation. 

The  next  figure  in  order,  is  Antithesis,  Comparison  is  founded 
on  the  resemblance ;  antithesis,  on  the  contrast  or  opposition  f 
two  objects.  Contrast  has  always  the  efiect,  to  make  each  of  the 
contrasted  objects  appear  in  the  stronger  light.  White,  for  in- 
stance, never  appears  so  bright  as  when  it  is  opposed  to  black ; 
and  when  both  are  viewed  together.  An  author,  in  his  defence 
of  a  friend  against  the  chai'ge  of  murder,  expresses  himself  thus  : 
"Can  you  believe  that  the  person  whom  he  scrupled  to  slay, 
when  he  might  have  done  so  with  fuil  justice,  in  a  convenient 
place,  at  a  proper  time,  with  secure  ir/ipunity ;  he  made  no  scruple 
to  murder  against  justice,  in  an  unfiivourable  place,  at  an  unsea- 
sonable time,  and  at  the  risk  of  capital  condemnation?" 

The  following  examples  further  illustrate  this  figure. 
Tho'  deep,  yet  clear ;  tho'  gentle,  yet  not  dull ; 
Strong,  without  rage ;    without  overflowing,  full. 

*'If  you  wish  to  enrich  a  person,  study  not  to  increase  ills 
Stores,  but  to  diminish  his  desires." 

*•  If  you  regulate  your  desires  according  to  the  standard  of  na* 


224  APPENDIX.  [Figures. 

tiire,  you  will  never  be  poor ;  if  according  to  the  standard  of 
opinion,  you  will  never  be  rich." 

A  maxim,  or  moral  saying,  very  properly  receives  the  form  of 
the  two  last  examples ;  both  because  it  is  supposed  to  be  the  fruit 
of  meditation,  and  because  it  is  designed  to  be  engraven  on  the 
memory,  which  recalls  it  more  ej^sily  by  the  help  of  such  con- 
trasted expressions.  But  where  such  sentences  frequently  suc- 
ceed each  other;  where  this  becomes  an  author's  favourite  and 
prevaihng  manner  of  expressing  himself,  his  style  appears  too 
much  studied  and  laboured  ;  it  gives  us  the  impression  of  an  au- 
\hor  attending  more  to  his  manner  of  saying  things,  than  to  the 
things  themselves. 

The  following  is  a  beautiful  example  of  Antithesis.  "If  Cato 
maybe  censured,  severely  in(jeed,  but  justly,  for  abandoning  the 
cause  of  liberty,  which  he  would  not,  howev*er,  survive;  what 
shall  we  say  of  those,  who  embrace  it  faintly,  pursue  it  irreso- 
lutely, grow  tired  of  it  when  they  have  much  to  hope,  and  give 
it  up  when  they  have  nothing  to  fear?" — The  capital  antithesis 
of  this  sentence,  is  instituted  between  the  zeal  of  Cato  for  liberty, 
and  the  indifference  of  some  others  of  her  patrons.  But,  besides 
the  leading  antitJiesis,  there  are  two  subordinate  ones,  in  the  lat- 
ter member  :  "  Grow  tired  of  Lt,  when  they  have  much  to  hope  : 
and  give  it  up,  when  they  have  nothing  to  fear." 

The  eloquent  Burke  has  exhibited  a  fine  instance  of  this  figure, 
in  his  eulogium  of  the  philanthropic  Howard. 

**He  has' visited  all  Europe, — not  to  survey  the  sumptuousiess 
of  palaces,  or  the  statcliness  of  temples;  not  to  make  accurate 
measurements  of  the  remains  of  ancient  grandeur,  nor  to  form  a 
scale  of  the  curiosity  of  modern  arts;  nor  to  collect  medals,  or 
collate  manuscripts: — but  to  dive  into  the  depths  of  dungeons; 
to  plunge  into  the  infection  of  hospitals;  to  survey  the  mansions 
of  sorrow  and  pain;  to  take  the  gage  and  dimensions  of  misery, 
depression,  and  contempt ;  to  remember  the  forgotten,  to  attend 
to  the  neglected,  to  visit  the  forsaken,  and  compare  and  collate 
the  distresses  of  all  men,  in  ali  countries." 

The  next  figure  concerning  which  we  are  to  treat  is'  called  Hy- 
perhole  or  Exaggeration.  It  consists  in  magnifying  an  object  be- 
yond its  natural  bounds.  In  all  languages,  even  in  common 
conversation,  hyperbolical  expressions  very  frequently  occur:  as 
swift  as  the  wind ;  as  white  as  the  snow ;  and  the  like  ;  and  the 
common  forms  of  compliment,  are  almost  all  of  them  extrava- 
gant hyperboles.  If  any  thing  be  remarkably  good  or  great  in 
its  kind,  we  are  instantly  ready  to  add  to  it  some  exaggerating 
epithet,  and  to  make  it  the  greatest  or  best  we  ever  saw.  The 
imagination  has  always  a  tendency  to  gratify  itself,  by  magnify- 
ing its  present  object,  and  carrying  it  to  excess.  More  or  less  oi 
this  hyperbolical  turn  will  prevail  in  language,  according  to  the 
liveliness  of  imagination  among  the  people  who  speak  it.  Hence 
young  people  deal  much  in  hyperboles.    Hence  the  language  of 


PiGURE§.]  PERSPICUITY,  fee.  ^25 

the  Orientals  was  far  more  hyperbolical,  than  that  of  the  Europe- 
ans, wiio  are  of  more  phlegmatic,  or  perhaps  we  may  say,  of 
more  correct  imagination.  Hence,  among  all  writers  in  early 
timeat  and  in  the  rude  periods  of  society,  we  may  expect  this 
figiiie  to  abound.  Greater  experience,  and  more  cultivated  so- 
ciety, abate  the  warmth  of  imagination,  and  chasten  the  manner 
of  expression. 

Hyperboles  are  of  two  kinds ;  either  such  as  are  employed 
in  description,  or  such  as  are  suggested  by  the  wnrmth  of  pas- 
sion. All  passions  without  exception,  love,  terror,  amazement, 
Indignation,  and  even  grief,  throw  the  mind  into  confusion,  ag- 
gravate their  objects,  and  of  course  prompt  a  hyperbohcal  style. 
Hence  the  following  sentiments  of  Satan  in  MiUon,  as  strongly  as 
they  are  described, contain  nothing,but  what  is  natural  and  proper ; 
tjxhibiting  the  picture  of  a  mind  agitated  with  rage  and  despai«* 

Me,  miserable!  which  way  shall  I  fly 

Infinite  wrath,  and  infinite  despair? 

Which  way  I  fly  is  Hell,  myself  am  Hell ; 

And  in  the  lowest  depth,  a  lower  deep, 

Still  threatening  to  devour  me,  opens  wide, 

To  which  the  Hell  I  suifer  seems  a  Heaven. 
The  fear  of  an  enemy  augments  the  conceptions  of  the  size  of 
their  leader.  *'  I  saw  their  chief,"  says  the  scout  of  Ossian,  **tall 
as  a  rock  of  ice  ;  his  spear,  the  blasted  fir ;  his  shield,  the  rising 
moon  :  he  sat  on  the  shore,  like  a  cloud  of  mist  on  the  hill.** 

The  errors  frequent  in  the  use  of  Hyperboles,  arise  either 
from  ovei straining,  or  introducing  them  on  unsuitable  occasions. 
Dryden,  in  his  poem  on  the  restoration  of  king  Charles  the  Second, 
comphments  that  monarch,  at  the  expense  of  the  sun  himself. 

That  star  at  your  birth  shone  out  so  bright, 

It  stain'd  the  duller  sun*s  meridian  hght. 
This  is  indeed  mere  bombast.     It  is  difficult  to  ascertain,  by 
any  precise  rule,  the  proper  measure  and  boundary  of  this  figure. 
Good  sense  and  just  taste  must  determine  the  point,  beyoud 
which,  if  we  pas»,  we  become  extravagant. 

Vision  is  another  figure  of  speech,  which  is  proper  only  in 
anmiated  and  warm  composition.  It  is  produced  when,  instead 
of  relating  something  that  is  past,  we  use  the  present  tense,  and 
describe  it  as  actually  passing  before  our  eyes.  Thus  Cicero,  in 
his  fourth  oration  against  Catiline  :  "  I  seem  to  myself  to  behold 
this  city,  the  ornament  of  the  earth,  and  th^  capital  of  all  na- 
tions, suddenly  involved  in  one  conflagration.  I  see  before  me 
the  slaughtered  heaps  of  citizens,  lying  unburied  in  the  midst  of 
their  ruined  country.  The  furious  countenance  of  Cethcgus 
rises  to  my  view,  while,  with  a  savage  joy,  he  is  triumphing  in 
your  miseries.'* 

This  manner  of  descri])tion  supposes  a  sort  of  enthusiasm, 
which  carries  the  j>erson  who  describes,  in  some  measure  out  of 
himself;  and,  when  well  executed,  must  needs,  by  the  force  of 
Bynipathy,  impress  the  reader  or  hearer  very  strongly.    But,  in 


226  APPENDIX.  [Figures. 

order  to  a  successful  execution,  it  requires  an  uncommonly 
warm  imagination,  and  so  happy  a  selection  of  circumstances, 
as  shall  make  us  think  we  see  before  our  eyes  the  scene  that  is 
described. 

Interrogation,  The  unfigured,  literal  use  of  interrogation,  is 
to  ask  a  question  :  but  when  men  are  strongly  moved,  whatever 
they  would  affirm  or  deny,  with  great  earnestness,  they  naturally 
put  in  the  form  of  a  question,  expressing  thereby  the  strongest 
confidence  of  the  truth  of  their  own  sentiment,  and  appealing  to 
their  hearers  for  the  impossibility  of  the  contrary.  TIjus  Balaam 
expressed  himself  to  Balak.  "  The  Lord  is  not  a  man  that  he 
should  lie,  neither  the  son  of  man  that  he  should  repent.  Hath 
he  said  it  ?  and  shall  he  not  Jo  it  ?  Math  he  spoken  it  ?  and  shall 
he  not  make  it  good  ?" 

Interrogation  gives  life  and  spirit  to  discourse.  We  see  this 
in  the  animated,  introductory  speech  of  Cicero  against  Catiline  : 
"  How  long  will  you,  Catiline,  abuse  our  patience  ?  Do  you  not 
perceive  that  your  designs  are  discovered  ?" — He  might  indeed 
have  said  '  You  abuse  our  patience  a  long  while.  You  musl 
be  sensible  tha  your  designs  are  discovered.'*  But  it  is  easy  to 
perceive  how  much  this  latter  mode  of  expression  falls  short  of 
the  force  and  vehemence  of  the  former. 

Exclamations  are  .he  effect  of  strong  emotions  of  the  mind  ; 
such  as,  surprise  admiration,  joy,  grief,  and  the  like.  **AVois 
me  that  1  sojourn  in  Mesech,  that  I  dwell  in  the  tents  of  Kedar  I'* 
Psaims 

"  O  that  my  nead  were  waters,  and  mine  eyes  a  fountain  of 
tears,  that  I  mignt  weep  day  and  night,  for  the  slain  of  the 
daughter  of  my  people !  O  that  I  had  m  the  wilderness  a  lodging- 
place  of  wayfaring  men  !"    Jeremiah, 

Though  interrogations  may  be  introduced  into  close  and  earnest 
reasoning,  exclamations  belong  only  to  strong  emotions  of  the 
mind.  When  judiciously  employed,  they  agitate  the  hearer  or 
the  reader  with  similar  passions  :  but  it  is  extremely  improper, 
and  sometimes  ridiculous,  to  use  them  on  trivial  occasions,  and 
on  mean  or  low  subjects.  The  unexperienced  writer  often 
attempts  to  elevate  his  language,  by  the  copious  display  of  this 
figure  :  but  he  rarely  or  never  succeeds.  He  frequently  renders 
Jiis  composition  frigid  to  excess,  or  absolutely  ludicrous,  by  calling 
on  us  to  enter  into  his  transports,  when  nothing  is  said  or  done 
to  demand  emotion. 

Irony  is  expresskig  ourselves  in  a  manner  contrary  to  our 
thoughts,  not  with  a  view  to  deceive,  but  to  add  force  to  our 
observations.  Persons  may  be  reproved  for  their  negligence,  by 
saying  ;  *'  You  have  taken  great  care  indeed."  Cicero  says  of  the 
person  against  whom  he  was  pleading;  '*  We  have  great  reason 
to  believe  that  the  modest  man  would  not  ask  him  for  his  debt, 
when  he  pursues  his  Hfe." 

Ironical  exhortation  is  a  very  agreeable  kind  of  figure  ;  whicli^ 
after  having  set  the  inconveniences  of  a  thing,  in  the  clearest 


FicDRKs.j  PERSPICUITY,  &c.  227 

light,  concludes  with  a  feigned  encouragement  to  pursue  it. 
Such  is  that  of  Horace,  when,  having  beautifully  described  the 
noise  and  tumults  of  Rome,  he  adds  ironically  ; 

"  Go  now,  and  study  tuneful  verse  at  Rome." 

The  subjects  of  Irony  are  vices  and  follies  of  all  kinds :  and 
this  mode  of  exposing  them,  is  often  more  effectual  than  serious 
reasoning.  The  gravest  persons  have  not  declined  the  use  ©f 
this  figure,  on  proper  occasions.  The  wise  and  virtuous  Socrates 
made  great  use  of  it,  iu  his  endeavours  to  discountenance  vicious 
and  foolish  practices.  Even  in  the  sacred  writings,  we  have  a 
remarkable  instance  of  it.  The  prophet  Elijah,  when  he  chal- 
lenged the  priests  of  Baal  to  prove  the  truth  of  their  deity, 
** mocked  them,  and  said:  Cry  aloud  for  he  is  a  god  :  either  he 
is  talking,  or  he  is  pursuing,  or  he  is  in  a  journey,  or  peradventure 
he  sleepeth,  and  must  be  awaked." 

Exclamations  and  Irony  are  sometimes  united  :  as  in  Cicero's 
oration  for  Balbus,  where  he  derides  his  accuser,  by  saying  ;  "O 
excellent  interpreter  of  the  law  !  master  of  antiquity!  corrector 
lino  amender  of  our  constitution  !" 

The  last  figure  of  speech  that  we  shall  mention,  is  what  writers 
'.all  Ani-pUfication  or  Climax.  It  consists  in  heightening  all  the 
circumstances  of  an  object  or  action,  which  we  desire  to  place 
n  a  strong  light.  Cicero  gives  a  lively  instance  of  this  figure, 
v^  hen  he  says  ;  '*  It  is  a  crime  to  put  a  Roman  citizen  in  bonds  ; 
t  is  the  height  of  guilt  to  scourge  him  ;  little  less  than  parricide 
5o  put  him  to  death  :  what  name  then  shall  I  give  to  the  act  of 
!  rucifying  him  ?" 

Archbishop  Tillotson  uses  this  figure  very  happily,  to  recom- 
iTiend  good  and  virtuous  actions  :  "  After  we  have  practised  good 
actions  awhile,  they  become  easy  ;  and  when  they  are  easy,  we 
riegin  to  take  pleasure  m  them  ;  and  when  they  please  us,  we  do 
them  frequently  ;  and  by  frequency  of  acts,  a  thing  grows  into 
a  habit ;  and  confirmed  habit  is  a  kind  of  second  nature  ;  and  so 
fur  as  any  thia^  is  natural,  so  far  it  is  necessary ;  and  wo  can 
hardly  do  otherwise  ;  nay,  W8  do  it  many  times  when  we  do  not 
think  of  it." 

We  shall  conclude  this  article  with  an  example  of  a  beautiful 
climax,  taken  from  the  charge  of  a  judge  to  the  jury,  in  the  case 
of 'a  woman  accused  of  murdering  her  own  child.  **  Gentlemen, 
if  one  man  had  any  how  slain  another ;  iffln  adversary  had 
killed  his  opposer,  or  a  woman  occasionecflthe  death  of  her 
e^jemy ;  even  these  criminals  would  have  been  capitally  punished 
by  the  Cornelian  law ;  but  if  this  guiltless  infant,  that  could  , 
make  no  enemy,  had  been  murdered  by  its  own  nurse,  what 
punishment  would  not  then  the  mother  have  demanded  ?  With 
what  cries  and  exclamations  would  she  have  stunned  your  ears ! 
What  shall  we  say  then,  when  a  woman,  guilty  of  liomicide,  a 
mother,  of  the  murder  of  her  innocent  child,  hath  comprised  all 
those  misdeeds  in  one  single  crime  ?  a  crime,  in  its  own  nature, 
detestable ;  in  a  womaoi  prodigious ;  in  a  mother,  incredible 


fm  APPENDIX.  [FiGURi^ 

and  perpetrated  against  one  whose  age  called  for  compassion, 
whose  near  relation  claimed  afTection,  and  whose  innocence  de- 
served the  highest  favour." 

We  have  now  finisiied  what  was  proposed,  concerning  Perspi 
cuity  in  single  words  and  phrases,  and  the  accurate  construction 
of  sentences.  The  former  has  been  considered  under  the  heada 
of  Purity,  Propriety,  and  Precision  ;  and  the  latter,  under  thoce 
of  Clearness,  Unity,  Strength,  and  the  proper  use  of  Figurative 
Language.  Though  many  of  Uiose  attentions  which  have  been 
recommended,  may  appear  minute,  yet  their  effect  upon  writing 
and  style,  is  much  greater  than  might,  at  first,  be  imagined.  A 
sentiment  which  is  expressed  in  accurate  language,  and  in  a  pe- 
riod, clearly,  neatly,  and  well  arranged,  always  makes  a  stronger 
impression  on  the  mind,  than  one  that  is  expressed  inaccurately, 
or  in  a  feeble  or  embarrassed  manner.  Every  one  feels  this  upon  a 
com])arison  :  and  if  the  effect  be  sensible  in  one  sentence,  how 
much  more  in  a  whole  discourse,  or  composition  that  is  made  uj» 
of  such  sentences  ? 

The  fundamental  rule  for  writing  with  accuracy,  and  into 
>vhich  all  others  might  be  resolved,  undoubtedly  is,  io  com- 
Viu7iicatc,  in  correct  language^  and  in  the  clearest  and  most  naturai 
order  J  the  ideas  which  we  mean  to  transfuse  into  the  minds  of  others. 
Such  a  selection  and  arrangement  of  words,  as  do  most  justice 
to  the  sense,  and  express  it  to  most  advantage,  make  an  agree- 
able and  strong  impression.  To  these  points  have  tended  all  the 
rules  which  have  been  given.  Did  we  always  think  clearly,  and 
were  we,  at  the  same  time,  fully  masters  of  the  language  in 
which  we  write,  there  would  be  occasion  for  few  rules.  Our 
sentences  would  then,  of  course,  acquire  all  those  pro])erties  ol 
clearness,  unity,  strengch,  and  accuracy,  which  have  been  re- 
commended. For  we  may  rest  assured,  that  whenever  we  express 
ourselves  ill,  besides  the  mismanagement  of  language,  there  is, 
for  the  most  part,  some  mistake  in  our  manner  of  conceiving  the 
subject.  Embarrassed,  obscure,  and  feeble  senttj»ices,  are  gene- 
rally, if  not  always,  the  result  of  embarrassed,  obscure,  and 
feeble  thought.  Thought  and  expression  act  and  re-act  upon 
each  other.  The  understanding  and  language  have  a  strict  con 
nexion  ;  and  they  who  are  learning  to  compose  and  arrange 
their  sentences  with  accuracy  and  order,  arc  learning,  at  the 
same  time,  to  think  with  accuracy  and  order  ;  a  consideration 
which  alone  will  ilfcompense  the  student,  for  his  attention  to  thiei 
branch  of  literature.  For  a  further  explanation  of  the  Figures  of 
Spttch^  see  the  Octavo  Grammar,  on  this  subject. 


ADnRESS 

TO     YOUNG    STUDENTS. 


THfi  Compiler  of  these  elements  of  the  English  language, 
^c*?^«  il  will  not  be  deemed  inconsistent  with  the  nature  and 
design  i-C  hi&  work,  to  make  a  short  address  to  the  youn«» 
persons  engaged  in  tlie  study  of  it,  respecting  their  future 
walks  in  the  paths  of  lite*rature,  and  the  chief  purpose  to  which 
they  should  apply  their  acquisitions. 

In  forming  this  Grammar,  and  the  volume  of  Illustrations 
connected  with  it,  the  author  was  influenced  by  a  desire  to  fa- 
cilitate your  progress  in  learning,  and,  at  the  same  time,  to 
ifiipreas  on  your  minds  principles  of  piety  and  virtue.  He 
wished  also  to  assist,  in  some  degree,  the  labours  of  those  who 
are  cultivating  your  understandings,  and  providing  for  you  a 
fund  of  rational  and  useful  employment ;  an  employment  cai- 
cwlai.ed  to  exclude  those  frivolous  pursuits,  and  that  love  of 
east  anJ  sensual  pleasure,  which  enfeeble  and  corrupt  the 
mtn  is  of  many  inconsiderate  youth,  and  render  them  useless 
to  f<ociety. 

W  thout  your  own  best  exertions,  the  concern  of  others  for 
yom  welfare,  will  be  of  little  avail :  with  them,  you  may  fairly 
promise  yoiirselves  succecs.  The  writer  of  this  address,  there- 
fore, recommends  to  you,  an  earnest  co-operation  with  the 
endeavours  of  your  friends  to  promote  MMr  improvement  and 
happiness.  This  co-operation,  whilst  it^Rures  your  own  pro- 
gress, will  afford  you  the  heart-felt  satisfaction,  of  knowing 
that  you  are  cherishing  the  hopes,  and  augmenting  the  plea- 
sures, of  those  with  whom  you  are  connected  by  the  most 
endearing  ties.  He  recommends  to  you  also,  serious  and  ele- 
vated views  of  the  studies  in  which  you  may  be  engaged 
Whatever  may  be  your   attainments,  never   allow  yourselves 


23D  ADDRESS   TO    TOU^Hl    STUDENTS. 

to   rest   satisfied   with    mere   literary  actjuisitions,  nor  with  a 
selfisli  or  contracted    application  of  tijem.       Wlien    tliey  ad 
vancc  only  the  interests  of  this  stage  of  beinj^,  and  look  no! 
beyond  the  present  transient  scene,  their  influence  is  circuni 
scribed  within  a  very  narrow  sphere.     The  great  business  of  thi< 
life  is  to  prepare,  and  qualify  us,  for  the  enjoyment  of  a  bet 
ler,  by   cultivating    a    pure   and,  humble  state   of   mind,  ana 
cherishing  habits  of  piety  towards  God,  and   benevolence   to 
men.     Every  thing   that   promotes  or    retardij   this   important 
work,  is  of  great  moment  to  you,  and  claiuis  your  first  anJ 
most  serious  attention. 

If,  then,  the  cultivation  of  letters,  and  an  advancement  in 
knowledge,  are  found  to  strengthen  and  enlarge  your  minds, 
to  purify  and  exalt  your  pleasures,  and  to  dispose  you  to 
pious  and  virtuous  sentiments  and  conduct,  they  produce  ex- 
cellent effects ;  which,  with  your  best  endeavours  to  improve 
them,  and  the  Divine  blessing  superadded,  will  not  fail  to  ren- 
ler  you,  not  only  wise  and  good  yourselves,  but  also  the 
happy  instruments  of  diffusing  wisdom,  religion,  and  good 
ness  around  you.  Thus  improved,  your  acquisitions  become 
handmaids  to  virtue  ;  and  they  may  eventually  serve  to  in- 
crease the  rewards,  which  the  Supreme  Being  has  promised 
to  faithful  and  well-directed  exertions,  for  the  promotion  ol 
truth  and  goodness  amongst  men. 

But  if  you  counteract  the  hopes  of  your  friends,  and  die 
tendency  of  these  attainments  ;  if  you  grow  vain  of  your  real 
or  imaginary  distinctions,  and  regard  with  contempt,  the  vir- 
tuous, unlettered  mind ;  if  you  suffer  yourselves  to  be  ab- 
sorbed in  over-curious  or  trifling  specidations ;  if  your  heart 
and  principles  be  debased  and  poisoned,  by  the  influence  ot 
corrupting  and  pernicious  books,  for  which  no  elegance  ot 
composition  ^an  make  amends;  if  you  spend  so  much  of  your 
time  in  literary  en^^ements,  as  to  make  them  interfere  wititi 
higher  occupationspKnd  lead  you  to  forget,  that  pious  anJH 
benevolent  action  is  the  great  end  of  your  being :  if  such 
be  the  unhappy  misapplication  of  your  acquisitions  and  ad- 
vantages,— instead  of  becoming  a  blessing  to  you,  they  will 
prove  the  occasion  of  greater  condemnation ;  and,  in  the 
hour  of  serous  thought,  they  may  excite  the  painful  reflec- 
tions,— that  it  would  have   been  better  for  you,  to  have  r>>^ 


ADDRESS    TO    YOtJ^a    STUDENTS.  Q31 

maineil  illiterate  and  niiaspiriiig  ;  to  have  been  confined  to  the 
humblest  walks  of  life ;  and  to  have  been  even  hewers  of 
wood  and  drawers  of  water  all  yoi;r  days. 

Contemplating  the  dangers  to  wliich  you  are  exposed,  the 
sorrows  and  dishonour  which  acconipany  talents  misapplied, 
and  a  course  of  indolence  and  folly,  may  you  exert  your  ut- 
most endeavours  to  avoid  them  !  Seriously  reflecting  on  the 
great  end  for  which  you  were  brought  into  existence  ;  on 
the  bright  and  encouraging  examples  of  many  excellent  young 
persons ;  and  ou  the  mournful  deviations  of  others,  who  once 
were  promising  ;  may  you  be  so  wise  as  to  choose  and  follow 
that  path,  which  leads  to  honour,  usefulness,  and  true  enjoy-MJ 
ment !  This  is  the  morning  of  your  life,  in  which  pursuit  is 
ardent,  and  obstacles  readily  give  way  to  vigour  and  perse- 
verance. Embrace  this  favourable  season ;  devote  yourselves 
to  the  acquisition  of  knowledge  and  virtue  ;  and  humbly  pray 
to  God  thst  he  may  bless  your  labours.  Often  reflect  on  the 
advantages  you  possess,  and  on  the  source  from  whence  they 
arc  all  derived.  A  lively  sense  of  the  privileges  and  ble^^ 
eings,  by  which  you  have  been  distinguished,  will  induce  you 
to  render  to  your  heavenly  Father,  the  just  returns  of  grati- 
tude and  love  :  and  these  fruits  of  early  goodness  will  be  re 
garded  by  him  as  acceptable  offerings,  and  secure  to  you  hi& 
favour  and  protection. 

Whatever  difficulties  and  discouragements  may  be  found  in 
resisting  the  allurements  of  vice,  ycu  may  be  humbly  confi- 
dent, that  Divine  assistance  will  be  affbrded  to  all  your  good 
and  pious  resolutions  ;  and  that  every  virtuous  effort  ..will 
mwe  a  correspondent  rc^vard.  You  may  rest  assured  too, 
that  all  tile  advantages  arising  from  vicious  indulgences,  are 
light  and  contemptible,  as  .well  as  exceedingly  transient,  com- 
pared with  the  substantial  enjoymcjnts,  the  present  pleasures, 
and  the  future  hopes,  which  result  from  i^ty  and  virtue. 
The  Holy  Scriptures  assure  us,  that  "  ThHpays  of  wisdom 
are  ways  of  pleasantness,  and  that  all  her  paths  are  peace :' 
"  that  religion  has  the  promise  of  the  life  that  now  is,  and  of 
that  which  is  to  come  :*'  and  that  the  truly  good  man,  what- 
ever may  be  the  condition  allotted  to  him  by  Divine  Provi- 
dence, **  in  all  things  gives  thanks,  and  rejoices  even  in  tri- 
bulation.*'— Some  of  these  sentiments  have  been  finely  illua- 


232  At)DIl£SS   TO    tOUNa   StUOKKTS. 

trated  by  a  celebrated  poet.  Tbe  autbor  of  this  addrfisi 
presents  tbe  iihistrntion  to  you,  as  a  striking  and  beautifu 
portrait  of  vir4:ue:  with  his  most  cordial  Avishes,  that  youi 
hearts  and  lives  may  correspond  to  it ;  and  that  your  happi 
ness  here,  may  be  an  earnest  of  happiness?  hereafter. 

"  Know  then  this  truth,  (enouj^li  for  man  to  know,) 
Virtue  alone  is  bafipiness  below  ; 
The  only  point  where  liuman  blins  stands  still  ;      « 
And  tastes  the  good,  without  the  fall  to  ill : 
Where  only  merit  constant  pay  receivc;s, 
Is  bless'd  in  what  it  takes,  and  what  it  gives ; 
The  joy  unequaird,  if  its  end  it  gain, 
And  if  it  lose,  attended  with  no  pain  : 
Without  satiety,  though  e'er  so  bless'd  ; 
And  but  more  relishM  as  the  more  distress'd: 
The  broadest  mirth  unfeeling  folly  wears, 
Less  pleasing  far  than  virtue's  very  tears : 
Good,  from  each  object,  from  each  place  acquirec 
For  ever  exercisM,  yet  never  tir'd  ; 
Never  elated,  while  one  man's  oi)press'd  ; 
Never  dejected,  while  another's  bless'd  : 
And  where  no  wants,  no  wishes  can  remain , 
Since  hut  to  wisii  njore  virtue,  is  to  gain.— 
For  him  alone  hope  leads  from  goal  to  goal| 
And  opens  still,  and  opens  on  his  soul ; 
Till  lengthen'd  on  to  faith,  and  unconfinM, 
It  pours  the  bliss  that  fills  up  all  the  nundi^ 


THE  END. 


** 


YA  04406 


924211 


THE  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  UBRARY 


'■^" 


*v 


/i  ^±\> 


